Painting | History, Artists, Elements, Techniques, Types, & Facts | Britannica

Painting | History, Artists, Elements, Techniques, Types, & Facts | Britannica

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painting

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painting

Table of Contents

IntroductionElements and principles of designElements of designLineShape and massColourTextureVolume and spaceTime and movementPrinciples of designDesign relationships between painting and other visual artsTechniques and methodsMediumsTemperaFrescoFresco seccoBuon frescoSgraffitoOilWatercolourInkGouacheEncausticCaseinSynthetic mediumsOther mediumsFrench pastelsOil pastelsGlass paintingsIvory paintingLacquerSand, or dry, paintingPaperCollageMechanical mediumsMixed mediumsForms of paintingMural paintingEasel and panel paintingMiniature paintingManuscript illumination and related formsScroll paintingScreen and fan paintingPanoramasModern formsImagery and subject matterKinds of imageryKinds of subject matterDevotionalNarrativePortraitureGenreLandscapeStill lifeOther subjectsSymbolism

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painting - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)

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Written by

Peter D. Owen

Painter and printmaker. Former Senior Lecturer, Croydon College of Design and Technology, England. Author of Painting: Appreciation of the Arts.

Peter D. Owen

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Recent News

Feb. 7, 2024, 11:35 PM ET (The Guardian)

Stolen Van Gogh on display for first time since being returned to Dutch art sleuth

painting, the expression of ideas and emotions, with the creation of certain aesthetic qualities, in a two-dimensional visual language. The elements of this language—its shapes, lines, colours, tones, and textures—are used in various ways to produce sensations of volume, space, movement, and light on a flat surface. These elements are combined into expressive patterns in order to represent real or supernatural phenomena, to interpret a narrative theme, or to create wholly abstract visual relationships. An artist’s decision to use a particular medium, such as tempera, fresco, oil, acrylic, watercolour or other water-based paints, ink, gouache, encaustic, or casein, as well as the choice of a particular form, such as mural, easel, panel, miniature, manuscript illumination, scroll, screen or fan, panorama, or any of a variety of modern forms, is based on the sensuous qualities and the expressive possibilities and limitations of those options. The choices of the medium and the form, as well as the artist’s own technique, combine to realize a unique visual image.(Read Sister Wendy’s Britannica essay on viewing art.)Earlier cultural traditions—of tribes, religions, guilds, royal courts, and states—largely controlled the craft, form, imagery, and subject matter of painting and determined its function, whether ritualistic, devotional, decorative, entertaining, or educational. Painters were employed more as skilled artisans than as creative artists. Later the notion of the “fine artist” developed in Asia and Renaissance Europe. Prominent painters were afforded the social status of scholars and courtiers; they signed their work, decided its design and often its subject and imagery, and established a more personal—if not always amicable—relationship with their patrons.During the 19th century painters in Western societies began to lose their social position and secure patronage. Some artists countered the decline in patronage support by holding their own exhibitions and charging an entrance fee. Others earned an income through touring exhibitions of their work. The need to appeal to a marketplace had replaced the similar (if less impersonal) demands of patronage, and its effect on the art itself was probably similar as well. Generally, artists in the 20th century could reach an audience only through commercial galleries and public museums, although their work may have been occasionally reproduced in art periodicals. They may also have been assisted by financial awards or commissions from industry and the state. They had, however, gained the freedom to invent their own visual language and to experiment with new forms and unconventional materials and techniques. For example, some painters combined other media, such as sculpture, with painting to produce three-dimensional abstract designs. Other artists attached real objects to the canvas in collage fashion or used electricity to operate coloured kinetic panels and boxes. Conceptual artists frequently expressed their ideas in the form of a proposal for an unrealizable project, while performance artists were an integral part of their own compositions. The restless endeavour to extend the boundaries of expression in art produced continuous international stylistic changes. The often bewildering succession of new movements in painting was further stimulated by the swift interchange of ideas by means of international art journals, traveling exhibitions, and art centres. Such exchanges accelerated in the 21st century with the explosion of international art fairs and the advent of social media, the latter of which offered not only new means of expression but direct communication between artists and their followers. Although stylistic movements were hard to identify, some artists addressed common societal issues, including the broad themes of racism, LGBTQ rights, and climate change.

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Cubism: Art and Artists

This article is concerned with the elements and principles of design in painting and with the various mediums, forms, imagery, subject matter, and symbolism employed or adopted or created by the painter. For the history of painting in ancient Egypt, see Egyptian art and architecture. The development of painting in different regions is treated in a number of articles: Western painting; African art; Central Asian arts; Chinese painting; Islamic arts; Japanese art; Korean art; Native American art; Oceanic art and architecture; South Asian arts; Southeast Asian arts. For the conservation and restoration of paintings, see art conservation and restoration. For a discussion of the forgery of works of art, see forgery. For a discussion of the role of painting and other arts in religion, as well as of the use of religious symbols in art, see religious symbolism and iconography. For information on other arts related to painting, see articles such as drawing; folk art; printmaking. Elements and principles of design Frederick R. Spencer: Family GroupFamily Group, oil on canvas by Frederick R. Spencer, 1840; in the Brooklyn Museum, New York. 74 × 91.4 cm.(more)The design of a painting is its visual format: the arrangement of its lines, shapes, colours, tones, and textures into an expressive pattern. It is the sense of inevitability in this formal organization that gives a great painting its self-sufficiency and presence.

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The colours and placing of the principal images in a design may be sometimes largely decided by representational and symbolic considerations. Yet it is the formal interplay of colours and shapes that alone is capable of communicating a particular mood, producing optical sensations of space, volume, movement, and light and creating forces of both harmony and tension, even when a painting’s narrative symbolism is obscure.

painting是什么意思_painting的翻譯_音標(biāo)_讀音_用法_例句_愛詞霸在線詞典

ting是什么意思_painting的翻譯_音標(biāo)_讀音_用法_例句_愛詞霸在線詞典首頁翻譯背單詞寫作校對詞霸下載用戶反饋專欄平臺登錄painting是什么意思_painting用英語怎么說_painting的翻譯_painting翻譯成_painting的中文意思_painting怎么讀,painting的讀音,painting的用法,painting的例句翻譯人工翻譯試試人工翻譯翻譯全文簡明柯林斯牛津painting高中/CET4/CET6/考研/TOEFL英?[?pe?nt??]美?[?pe?nt??]釋義n.繪畫; 油畫; 上色，著色; 顏料，油漆v.繪畫（ paint的現(xiàn)在分詞）; 涂色于大小寫變形:Painting點擊 人工翻譯，了解更多 人工釋義詞態(tài)變化復(fù)數(shù):?paintings;實用場景例句全部繪畫油畫上色著色顏料油漆a collection of paintings by American artists美國藝術(shù)家繪畫作品集牛津詞典cave paintings洞窟里的壁畫牛津詞典Her hobbies include music and painting.她的愛好包括音樂和繪畫。牛津詞典painting and decorating油漆和裝潢牛津詞典...a large oil-painting of Queen Victoria.維多利亞女王的大幅油畫柯林斯高階英語詞典...two hobbies she really enjoyed, painting and gardening.她的兩大嗜好: 繪畫和園藝柯林斯高階英語詞典...painting and decorating.粉刷和裝潢柯林斯高階英語詞典There is no other misfortune that could be compared with the loss of time.沒有一種不幸可與失掉時間相比.期刊摘選The painting isn't flawless.這幅畫并非完美無缺.《用法詞典》The ancient painting was purchased for 50,000 francs in 1989.那幅古畫是1989年以5萬法郎買下的.《現(xiàn)代漢英綜合大詞典》The painting was a forgery.這張畫是贗品.《簡明英漢詞典》The distortion of form is a constant in his painting.曲線型是他繪畫的一貫特點.《現(xiàn)代英漢綜合大詞典》Painting is his bread and butter.他靠繪畫謀生.《簡明英漢詞典》The painting is a representation of a storm at sea.這幅畫描繪的是海上的暴風(fēng)雨.《簡明英漢詞典》This painting exemplifies the artist's early style.這幅畫是該畫家早期藝術(shù)風(fēng)格的典型.《簡明英漢詞典》The subject of the painting is very clear.這幅畫的主題很明顯.《現(xiàn)代英漢綜合大詞典》Every bit of Huangshan Mountain scenery is worth painting.黃山山景,處處可以入畫.《現(xiàn)代漢英綜合大詞典》The craftsmen have ensured faithful reproduction of the original painting.工匠保證要復(fù)制一幅最接近原作的畫.《簡明英漢詞典》The painting represents the scene of a bumper harvest.這幅畫描繪了豐收的景象.《簡明英漢詞典》He received tuition in painting for one year.他學(xué)了一年繪畫.《簡明英漢詞典》She stood contemplating the painting.她站在那兒凝視那幅圖畫.《簡明英漢詞典》We have made inroads into our painting job; we finished the kitchen already.我們的粉刷工作有進展了, 已經(jīng)把廚房刷好了.《簡明英漢詞典》He is painting her a picture.他正在為她作畫.《簡明英漢詞典》He attained perfection in landscape painting.他畫山水的技巧達(dá)到了爐火純青的地步.《現(xiàn)代漢英綜合大詞典》His painting had tactile appeal.他的畫作具有質(zhì)感美.《簡明英漢詞典》This painting is their joint work.這幅畫是他們合作的.《現(xiàn)代漢英綜合大詞典》This isn't much of a painting.這幅畫畫得不怎么樣.《現(xiàn)代漢英綜合大詞典》收起實用場景例句真題例句全部四級六級高考考研In his spare time, he visited the local art galleries, and the paintings are now lodged deep in his autobiographical memories.出自-2017年6月閱讀原文Have you finished that painting for the new student center?出自-2012年12月聽力原文He needs another week for the painting出自-2012年12月聽力原文The painting was completed just in time.出自-2012年12月聽力原文While Gail Obcamp, an American artist was giving a speech on the art of Japanese brush painting to an audience that included visitors from Japan, she was confused to see that many of her Japanese listeners have their eyes closed.出自-2011年12月聽力原文"Imagine being able to remember every painting, on every wall, in every gallery space, between nearly 40 countries," he says.2017年6月四級真題（第一套）閱讀 Section B"There's an ancient legend that as long as these eggs are made, evil will not prevail in the world," says Joan Brander, a Canadian egg-painter who has been painting eggs for over 60 years, having learned the art from her Ukrainian relatives.2017年6月四級真題（第一套）閱讀 Section CSince there were few museums anywhere in Europe before the close of the eighteenth century, Grand Tourists often saw paintings and sculptures by gaining admission to private collections, and many were eager to acquire examples of Greco-Roman and Italian art for their own collections.出自-2017年6月閱讀原文The example of Rembrandt's painting suggests that a distinction should be made between effort and accomplishment.出自-2010年6月閱讀原文What do you think Picasso's painting exhibited in the city museum?出自-2014年6月聽力原文He is not quite impressed with modern paintings出自-2014年6月聽力原文They offer to let me exhibit some of my paintings here.出自-2013年6月聽力原文The gallery space is big enough for the man's paintings出自-2013年6月聽力原文While Gail Obcamp, an American artist was giving a speech on the art of Japanese brush painting to an audience that included visitors from Japan, she was confused to see that many of her Japanese listeners have their eyes closed.出自-2011年12月聽力原文And when it comes to the hyper-connected super-smart world that technology firms are painting for us, it seems that consumers are growing more uneasy about handing over the massive amounts of consumer data needed to provide the personalized, customized so2016年12月六級真題（第二套）閱讀 Section BEfforts like painting eyes on cow butts may seem crazy at first, but they could make actual headway in the fight for conservation.2018年12月六級真題（第一套）閱讀 Section AIn what's probably the craziest headline I've ever written, I've reported that advances in livestock protection are happening with scientists painting eyes on the butts of cows.2018年12月六級真題（第一套）閱讀 Section AIt's possible Merian used a magnifying glass to capture the detail of the split tongues of sphinx moths depicted in the painting.2018年12月六級真題（第二套）閱讀 Section BAbsorbed in painting, john didn't notice evening approaching.2015年高考英語天津卷 單項填空 原文Benjamin west, the father of American painting, showed his talent for art when he was only six years of age.2017年高考英語浙江卷（6月） 閱讀理解 閱讀A 原文By painting buildings white, cities may slow down the warming process.2017年高考英語江蘇卷 閱讀理解 閱讀D 原文He provided him with painting materials.2017年高考英語浙江卷（6月） 閱讀理解 閱讀A 選項He spent much of his childhood in France where he spent many hours each day outdoors painting pictures.2019年高考英語全國卷2 聽力 原文He took him to see painting exhibitions.2017年高考英語浙江卷（6月） 閱讀理解 閱讀A 選項I'd skipped nearby Guilin, a dream place for tourists seeking the limestone mountain tops and dark waters of the Li river which are pictured by artists in so many Chinese paintings.2015年高考英語全國卷1 語法填空 原文In Peru, local farmers around a mountain with a glacier that has already fallen victim to climate change have begun painting the entire mountain peak white in the hope that the added reflectiveness will restore the life-giving ice.2017年高考英語江蘇卷 閱讀理解 閱讀D 原文Once, after a trip to Hollywood, I returned to Australia so depressed and spent months in my bedroom painting, listening to Eckhart Tolle's music and trying to find myself again.2017年高考英語天津卷 閱讀表達(dá) 原文So he spent time improving his painting skills and began to sell his paintings.2019年高考英語全國卷2 聽力 原文The boy began a landscape 風(fēng)景 painting.2017年高考英語浙江卷（6月） 閱讀理解 閱讀A 原文The pompidou centre in Paris is showing its respect and admiration for the artist and his powerful personality with an exhibition bringing together over 200 paintings, sculptures, drawings and more.2015年高考英語全國卷1 閱讀理解 閱讀C 原文We are lucky now to have so many paintings of American birds by John Audubon.2019年高考英語全國卷2 聽力 原文When most people think of the arts, they imagine the end product, the beautiful painting, a wonderful piece of music, or an award-winning performance in the theater.2018年高考英語江蘇卷 閱讀理解 填空題 原文Williams was impressed with Benjamin and gave him two classic books on painting to take home.2017年高考英語浙江卷（6月） 閱讀理解 閱讀A 原文Humans are unique in their capacity to not only make tools but then turn around and use them to create superfluous material goods - paintings, sculpture and architecture - and superfluous experiences - music, literature, religion and philosophy.出自-2012年考研閱讀原文Derek Jarman's yellow-tinted film Towards Avebury, a collection of long, mostly still shots of the wiltshire landscape, evokes a tradition of English landscape painting stretching from Samuel Palmer to Paul Nash.2014年考研真題（英語二）閱讀理解 Section Ⅱ收起真題例句英英釋義Noun1. graphic art consisting of an artistic composition made by applying paints to a surface;"a small painting by Picasso""he bought the painting as an investment""his pictures hang in the Louvre"2. creating a picture with paints;"he studied painting and sculpture for many years"3. the act of applying paint to a surface;"you can finish the job of painting faster with a roller than with a brush"4. the occupation of a house painter;"house painting was the only craft he knew"收起英英釋義詞根詞綴詞根: paint=paint,表示"描畫"n.painter 畫家, 油漆匠paint油漆, 顏料+er人→n.畫家, 油漆匠painting 上油漆, 著色, 繪畫, 油畫paint[n.&v.油漆, 顏料, 涂料]+ing狀態(tài),物品→n.上油漆, 著色, 繪畫, 油畫n.&v.paint 油漆, 顏料, 涂料paint描畫→n.&v.油漆, 顏料, 涂料同義詞辨析drawing, illustration, cartoon, diagram, picture, sketch, painting, portrait這些名詞都表示"畫，圖"之意。drawing： 指用線條或色彩繪成的圖畫。illustration： 指插入書頁之間幫助說明的任何插圖或圖解。cartoon： 指幽默或諷刺性漫畫。diagram： 多指科技書籍或文獻中具有概括解說作用的圖表、圖樣或略圖。picture： 指廣義的"圖畫"，現(xiàn)多用來指相片、畫像。sketch： 通常指只畫出物體主要特征的圖畫。painting： 指著色的畫。portrait： 指肖像，只用于指人。同義詞n.繪畫,著色,上油漆emblazonrypigmentationlacqueringtintingtincturecolorationvarnishingprimingenamellingundercoatingdyeingn.繪畫作品,畫,油畫,水彩畫等seascapeartfrescocanvasminiaturemasterpiecerepresentationstudyportrayallandscapewatercolorpicturedelineationoilwaterscapedepictioncompositionscenedrawingworkpanoramadesignportraitillustrationtableauportraituresketchofmuraln.繪畫風(fēng)格,繪畫藝術(shù)cubismneoclassicismneo-impressionismimpressionismpointillismrealismsurrealismpost-impressionismclassicismromanticismmodernism其他釋義art行業(yè)詞典醫(yī)學(xué)涂抹???"又稱 :涂抹(smearing,daub) "???機械涂裝???將涂料涂覆于基底表面形成具有防護、裝飾或特定功能涂層的過程。???石油涂漆???涂覆???航天涂裝???航海科技涂漆???釋義詞態(tài)變化實用場景例句真題例句英英釋義詞根詞綴同義詞辨析同義詞行

Drawing / Painting 的詞源是什么？兩者本質(zhì)上有區(qū)別嗎？ - 知乎

Drawing / Painting 的詞源是什么？兩者本質(zhì)上有區(qū)別嗎？ - 知乎首頁知乎知學(xué)堂發(fā)現(xiàn)等你來答?切換模式登錄/注冊A 和 B 有什么不同英語詞源Drawing / Painting 的詞源是什么？兩者本質(zhì)上有區(qū)別嗎？論文奮斗中，反復(fù)遇到對“drawing”“painting”這兩個詞語的使用混亂的情況。中文里基本上用繪畫可以一言蔽之，但是分開翻譯drawing指的…顯示全部 ?關(guān)注者8被瀏覽17,808關(guān)注問題?寫回答?邀請回答?好問題?添加評論?分享?3 個回答默認(rèn)排序摩西英語www.mosesenglish.com，詞源法系列詞匯課程? 關(guān)注drawing的draw的本意是拖動，畫畫的時候拖動畫筆是，拖拽地上的重物是，beast of draught 是供拉曳的牲口，它就與pack animal相對，pack animal是馱獸，因為身體結(jié)構(gòu)決定了馱獸能背負(fù)重物。更深詞源層面其實稍復(fù)雜了些，你就知道和drag等有關(guān)就可以了。painting的paint，其詞根本意是刻劃，與日耳曼詞源的單詞file的銼刀這層含義同源。你就能想象出了，在巖石等硬面上的就是painting。后來有了紙張了，筆也有了軟筆和硬筆了，drawing才有了可能。編輯于 2017-09-24 14:52?贊同 3??2 條評論?分享?收藏?喜歡收起?張興巴黎美院造型藝術(shù)碩士? 關(guān)注您好，試著回答一下，首先說素描，中文素描新華字典的解釋是“單用線條描寫﹑不加彩色的繪畫。是造型藝術(shù)的基礎(chǔ)。”但如果這樣定義，我們就無法在西方語言中找到一個可以與之完全相對應(yīng)的詞，以英文為例，我們常會用兩個詞來指代“素描”，一個是DRAWING，另一個是SKETCH，但是這兩個詞都與“素描”無關(guān)。牛津英英詞典的解釋，DRAWING是用硬筆畫的畫（比如鋼筆鉛筆或者蠟筆），這種畫是與PAINTING所指的軟筆繪畫相對應(yīng)的（因此從表面看來，Drawing / Painting只是工具上的不同）；而SKETCH是繪制快速，未完成的，或者說為了完成某件藝術(shù)品而創(chuàng)作的準(zhǔn)備性稿件，可以是硬筆畫也可以是軟筆畫（并不強調(diào)工具，而是強調(diào)草的，未完成的，預(yù)備的性質(zhì)。而且從操作上來說，這種草圖即便畫得很好也不能直接轉(zhuǎn)化成成品），相當(dāng)于“草稿”。中文的“素描”雖然并不來自于西方繪畫體系，卻依然被認(rèn)為是舶來品，這應(yīng)該說是一種認(rèn)識上的偏差。但其實，SKETCH自身含義就帶有未完成和便捷隨手的特性，這些使得它不具備成為藝術(shù)品或者說藝術(shù)商品的工藝性和價值（有些大師的SKETCH之所以能夠成為藝術(shù)商品是名人效應(yīng)的緣故）。而DRAWING與SKETCH大同小異，從美術(shù)史的角度來看早期西方繪畫中的硬筆就是一種專門用來快速繪制的草圖的工具。當(dāng)然隨著時代的發(fā)展，有些DRAWING也會進入藝術(shù)市場成為流通藝術(shù)品，但是這種情況目前都不算太主流。再說PAINTING，現(xiàn)在看來指的得是軟筆繪畫，但是從詞源上可以看出他才是西方美術(shù)史的正統(tǒng)長子，最開始是指的裝飾（建筑的附屬品）然后指稱顏色，在往后到涂顏色用的東西和過程，一直到今天指的是軟筆畫。所謂的軟筆本身是沒有顏色的，需要沾著顏料并且借助畫筆的機械結(jié)構(gòu)把顏色涂在畫的表面上，換句話說通過控制筆的痕跡（硬筆留下的痕跡是線，刷子留下的是片），把顏料留在表面上。為了讓顏料留存的長久，會在呈色劑上添加粘合劑，媒介劑等一系列東西，最后形成的畫作具有永固性和制作性，最終由于這些特性，形成了有品質(zhì)保證能夠流通的藝術(shù)商品（也就是藝術(shù)作品）。所以不提漢語，只看“drawing”“painting”其實使用起來完全不混亂---painting涵蓋一切繪畫作品，更特制成品畫，drawing指的是硬筆畫（非軟筆畫）或者草圖。漢語混亂的元兇就在于把本來是草圖的輔助性硬筆畫，所謂"素描“當(dāng)成了和“painting”同一層面的相對的概念。發(fā)布于 2017-08-01 14:54?贊同 25??4 條評論?分享?收藏?喜歡收起??

painting_百度百科

ting_百度百科 網(wǎng)頁新聞貼吧知道網(wǎng)盤圖片視頻地圖文庫資訊采購百科百度首頁登錄注冊進入詞條全站搜索幫助首頁秒懂百科特色百科知識專題加入百科百科團隊權(quán)威合作下載百科APP個人中心painting播報討論上傳視頻英文單詞收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10painting，英文單詞，名詞、動詞，作名詞時意為“繪畫；油畫；著色，人名；(英)佩因廷”，作動詞時意為“繪畫（paint的ing形式）；涂色于”。外文名painting詞????性名詞、動詞單詞發(fā)音英[?pe?nt??]美[?pe?nt??]目錄1單詞發(fā)音2短語搭配3雙語例句單詞發(fā)音播報編輯英[?pe?nt??]美[?pe?nt??] [1]短語搭配播報編輯oil painting[社科]油畫 ; 金山一角 ; 現(xiàn)代樹 ; 油畫作品Finger painting指畫 ; 手指畫body painting人體彩繪 ; 身體彩繪 ; 身體繪畫 ; 體繪Chromoskedasic Painting折光畫lacquer painting漆畫 ; 磨 ; 涂漆 ; 漆繪wall painting壁畫 ; 墻面粉刷 ; 墻體彩繪 ; 墻畫painting brush畫筆 ; 油畫毛筆 ; 油畫羊毫 ; 發(fā)刷back painting底面涂漆 ; 布景背面作畫curtain painting[涂料]幕簾涂裝 [1]雙語例句播報編輯Why do you like painting ?為什么你喜歡畫畫嗎？I like this painting.我喜歡這幅畫。I like painting.我喜歡繪畫。 [1]新手上路成長任務(wù)編輯入門編輯規(guī)則本人編輯我有疑問內(nèi)容質(zhì)疑在線客服官方貼吧意見反饋投訴建議舉報不良信息未通過詞條申訴投訴侵權(quán)信息封禁查詢與解封?2024?Baidu?使用百度前必讀?|?百科協(xié)議?|?隱私政策?|?百度百科合作平臺?|?京ICP證030173號?京公網(wǎng)安備110000020000

PAINTING中文(簡體)翻譯：劍橋詞典

PAINTING中文(簡體)翻譯：劍橋詞典

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painting 在英語-中文（簡體）詞典中的翻譯

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A2 [ C or U ] a picture made using paint

（使用顏料的）繪畫，油畫

The walls are covered in oil paintings.

墻上掛滿了油畫。

an exhibition of 19th-century French painting

19世紀(jì)法國繪畫作品展

A2 [ U ] the skill or activity of making a picture or putting paint on a wall

繪畫;（上）油漆

We were taught painting and drawing at art college.

我們在美術(shù)學(xué)院學(xué)過繪畫和素描。

When we bought the house, we had to do a lot of painting and redecorating.

我們買下這幢房子的時候，不得不好好油漆裝修一番。

更多范例減少例句Any painting by Van Gogh is worth a fortune.He always uses vibrant colours in his paintings.The curator guided us round the gallery, pointing out the most famous paintings in the collection.Edvard Munch's "The Scream" is a famous Expressionist painting.The painting portrays a beautiful young woman in a blue dress.

(painting在劍橋英語-中文（簡體）詞典的翻譯 ? Cambridge University Press)

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（使用顏料的）繪畫，油畫, 繪畫, （上）油漆…

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pintura, cuadro, pintura [feminine…

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tableau [masculine], toile [feminine], peinture [feminine]…

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the number of years that someone lives or can expect to live in reasonably good health

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Chinese painting | History, Techniques, Style, & Facts | Britannica

Chinese painting | History, Techniques, Style, & Facts | Britannica

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Chinese painting

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Chinese painting

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IntroductionGeneral characteristicsAesthetic characteristics and artistic traditionsArt as a reflection of Chinese class structureThe role of calligraphy in Chinese artCharacteristic themes and symbolsCharacteristics of paintingFrom the Shang dynasty to 220 ceZhou dynasty (1046–256 bce)Qin (221–206 bce) and Han (206 bce–220 ce) dynastiesFrom 220 to 1206 ceThree Kingdoms (220–280) and Six Dynasties (220–589)Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynastiesFive Dynasties (907–960) and Ten Kingdoms (902–978)Landscape paintingFlower paintingSong (960–1279), Liao (907–1125), and Jin (1115–1234) dynastiesFrom 1206 to 1912Yuan dynasty (1206–1368)Ming dynasty (1368–1644)Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12)Since 1912Painting and printmakingPainting at the turn of the 21st century

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Written by

Jerome Silbergeld

P.Y. and Kinmay W. Tang Professor of Art History, and Director, P.Y. and Kinmay W. Tang Center for East Asian Art, Princeton University, New Jersey. Author of Chinese Painting Style and others.

Jerome Silbergeld,

Michael Sullivan

Christensen Professor Emeritus of Oriental Art, Stanford University, California. Author of The Birth of Landscape Painting in China and The Arts of China.

Michael Sullivan,

Liu Qiyi

Associate Professor, Art Education Department, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.

Liu QiyiSee All

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Chinese painting, one of the major art forms produced in China over the centuries. The other arts of China are treated in separate articles. These include Chinese calligraphy, which in China is closely associated with painting; interior design; tapestry; floral decoration; Chinese pottery; metalwork; enamelwork; and lacquerwork; as well as Chinese jade; silk; and Chinese architecture. The present political boundaries of China, which include Tibet, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and the northeastern provinces formerly called Manchuria, embrace a far larger area of East Asia than will be discussed here. “China proper,” as it has been called, consists of 18 historical provinces bounded by the Plateau of Tibet on the west, the Gobi to the north, and Myanmar (Burma), Laos, and Vietnam to the southwest, and it is primarily painting as it developed in China proper that will be treated here. (See also Central Asian arts; and Southeast Asian arts.)The first communities that can be identified culturally as Chinese were settled chiefly in the basin of the Huang He (Yellow River). Gradually they spread out, influencing other tribal cultures, until, by the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce), most of China proper was dominated by the culture that had been formed in the cradle of northern Chinese civilization. Over this area there slowly spread a common written language, a common belief in the power of heaven and the ancestral spirits to influence the living, and a common emphasis on the importance of ceremony and sacrifice to achieve harmony among heaven, nature, and humankind. These beliefs were to have a great influence on the character of Chinese painting, and indeed all the arts of China.Chinese civilization is by no means the oldest in the world: those of Mesopotamia and Egypt are far older. But, while the early Western cultures died, became stagnant, or were transformed to the point of breaking all continuity, that of China has grown continuously from prehistoric settlements into the great civilization of today.The Chinese themselves were among the most historically conscious of all the major civilizations and were intensely aware of the strength and continuity of their cultural tradition. They viewed history as a cycle of decline and renewal associated with the succession of ruling dynasties. Both the political fragmentation and social and economic chaos of decline and the vigour of dynastic rejuvenation could stimulate and colour important artistic developments. Thus, it is quite legitimate to think of the history of Chinese painting primarily in terms of the styles of successive dynasties, as the Chinese themselves do.

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General characteristics Aesthetic characteristics and artistic traditions Art as a reflection of Chinese class structure One of the outstanding characteristics of Chinese art is the extent to which it reflects the class structure that has existed at different times in Chinese history. Up to the Warring States period (475–221 bce), the arts were produced by anonymous craftsmen for the royal and feudal courts. During the Warring States period and the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce), the growth of a landowning and merchant class brought new patrons. After the Han there began to emerge the concept of “fine art” as the product of the leisure of the educated gentry, many of whom were amateur practitioners of the arts of poetry, music, calligraphy, and, eventually, painting. At this time a distinction began to arise between the lower-class professional and the elite amateur artist; this distinction would have a great influence on the character of Chinese art in later times. Gradually one tradition became identified with the artists and craftsmen who worked for the court or sold their work for profit. The scholarly amateurs looked upon such people with some contempt, and the art of the literati became a separate tradition that was increasingly refined and rarefied to the point that, from the Song dynasty (960–1279) onward, an assumed awkwardness in technique was admired as a mark of the amateur and gentleman. One effect of the revolutions of the 20th century was the breaking down of the class barriers between amateur and professional and even, during the Cultural Revolution of 1966–76, an emphasis on anonymous, proletarian-made art like that of the Tang dynasty (618–907) and earlier.

繪畫（藝術(shù)類型之一）_百度百科

術(shù)類型之一）_百度百科 網(wǎng)頁新聞貼吧知道網(wǎng)盤圖片視頻地圖文庫資訊采購百科百度首頁登錄注冊進入詞條全站搜索幫助首頁秒懂百科特色百科知識專題加入百科百科團隊權(quán)威合作下載百科APP個人中心繪畫是一個多義詞，請在下列義項上選擇瀏覽（共7個義項）展開添加義項繪畫[huì huà]播報討論上傳視頻藝術(shù)類型之一收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10繪畫（Drawing 或Painting）在技術(shù)層面上，是一個以表面作為支撐面，再在其之上加上顏色的做法，那些表面可以是紙張或布，加顏色的工具可以通過畫筆，也可以通過刷子、海綿或是布條等，也可以運用軟件進行繪畫。在藝術(shù)用語的層面上，繪畫的意義亦包含利用此藝術(shù)行為再加上圖形、構(gòu)圖及其他美學(xué)方法去達(dá)到畫家希望表達(dá)的概念及意思。繪畫在美術(shù)中占大部分。中文名繪畫外文名drawing 或 painting元????素點、線、面、體積等表面的例子紙張、布、木材等作????用陶冶性情等目錄1釋義2理論基礎(chǔ)?核心要素?基本功?關(guān)于主動性?到位與拉開?黑白灰?重視修改3繪畫類型?水墨畫?油畫?版畫?水粉畫?壁畫?漫畫?工筆畫?寫意畫?抽象畫?青綠山水畫?水墨山水畫?白描畫?指畫?界畫?內(nèi)畫?素描4繪畫體系?中國繪畫?印度繪畫5中國繪畫史?學(xué)習(xí)方法?整體意識?體積意識釋義播報編輯繪畫（painting）在藝術(shù)層面上，是一個以表面作為支撐面，再在其之上加上顏色的行為，那些表面的例子有紙張、油畫布（canvas）、木材、玻璃、漆器或混凝土等。在藝術(shù)用語的層面上，繪畫的意義亦包含利用此藝術(shù)行為再加上圖形（drawing）、構(gòu)圖及其他美學(xué)方法去達(dá)到表現(xiàn)出從事者希望表達(dá)的概念及意思。明 張宏《西山爽氣圖》（局部）1、造形藝術(shù)的一種。用色彩和線條在紙、布、墻壁或其他平面上繪寫事物形象。明朝胡應(yīng)麟《少室山房筆叢·九流緒論上》：“藝主書、計、射、御，而博弈、繪畫諸工附之?！濒斞浮稌偶ぶ吕顦濉罚骸熬屠L畫而論，六朝以來，就大受印度美術(shù)的影響，無所謂國畫了?！鄙驈奈摹稄奈淖詡鳌ゎA(yù)備兵的技術(shù)班》：“若機會許可他上外國去學(xué)藝術(shù)，在繪畫方面的成就，會成一顆放光的星子?！?、作畫。唐韓愈《進撰表》：“乾坤之容，日月之光，知其不可繪畫，強顏為之，以塞詔旨?！彼翁K軾《怪石供》：“今齊安江上，往往得美石，與玉無辨，多紅黃白色，其紋如人指上螺，精明可愛，雖巧者以意繪畫有不能及，豈古所謂怪石者耶？”清富察敦崇《燕京歲時記·燈節(jié)》：“各色燈彩多以紗絹、玻璃及明角等為之，并繪畫古今故事，以資玩賞?！濒斞浮肚医橥るs文·連環(huán)圖畫瑣談》：“沒有和地球一樣大小的紙張，地球便無法繪畫?！泵?張宏《閶門舟阻圖》扇繪畫，按工具材料和技法的不同，以及文化背景的不同，分為中國畫、油畫、版畫、水彩畫、水粉畫等主要畫種。中國畫又按技法的工細(xì)與粗放，分為工筆畫和寫意畫。版畫又根據(jù)版材的不同，分為木版畫、銅版畫、紙版畫、石版畫、絲網(wǎng)版畫等；版畫還依制版方法和印色技法分類，常見的有腐蝕版畫、油印木刻、水印木刻、黑白版畫、套色版畫等。以上畫種，又依描繪對象的不同，分為人物畫、風(fēng)景畫、靜物畫等。人物畫又依據(jù)描繪題材內(nèi)容的不同，分為肖像畫、歷史畫、宗教畫、風(fēng)俗畫、軍事畫、人體畫等。繪畫，是指用筆、板刷、刀、墨、顏料等工具材料，在紙、紡織物、木板、墻壁等平面（二度空間）上塑造形象的藝術(shù)形式。現(xiàn)代可以通過計算機軟件用鼠標(biāo)手寫板進行數(shù)碼繪圖，實現(xiàn)無紙化數(shù)字圖像保存，避免了資源的浪費。也使得觀看照片更加方便、美觀。理論基礎(chǔ)播報編輯繪畫理論基礎(chǔ)知識形體的點、線、面所描繪的物體都是立體的，而最基本的形體是立方體、球形、柱體與椎體。素描寫生可從這四類形體出發(fā)，去研究主體構(gòu)成的基本因素與形體塑造的關(guān)系。點表示位置，是形體塑造的標(biāo)記，對于造型有著特定的數(shù)量意義。先看位置點，找出它的基點與頂點、右點、左點、近點和遠(yuǎn)點，這些點規(guī)定著物體的整體范圍和個面之間的大小比例關(guān)系。再看轉(zhuǎn)折點，這些點如同交通樞紐，聯(lián)系著形體中的線與面。核心要素一幅畫作，最重要的是思想的呈現(xiàn)，評論家王進玉認(rèn)為，作者的主張、觀點、認(rèn)識、情感等，才是最核心要素。脫離畫家思想的表達(dá)、畫面實際需要和具體表現(xiàn)對象，純粹為了筆墨而筆墨，為了技巧而技巧，這樣的作品無太多價值可言。 [1]基本功基本功好，是不是就創(chuàng)造力強呢。答案是：一定。世界上很多優(yōu)秀的藝術(shù)家的基礎(chǔ)功都很“扎實”。在中國，純技術(shù)人才已經(jīng)不多見，這也可以說是基礎(chǔ)教育的一大通病。之所以要搞基礎(chǔ)教育，又要推進基礎(chǔ)教育的課程改革，主要是針對人才的基本功普遍低下這一致命問題的。不缺想象力，而且可以說世界領(lǐng)先，缺的是扎實的繪畫基礎(chǔ)。所以，處理好基礎(chǔ)教學(xué)與創(chuàng)造性思維的培養(yǎng)兩者之間的關(guān)系就顯得非常重要。有必要更新的創(chuàng)造觀，但是打基礎(chǔ)也不只是死記硬背、機械重復(fù)訓(xùn)練，也可以是廣泛的閱讀、欣賞、見識、交流、合作、討論、調(diào)查、綜合、比較、懷疑、探究、想象、創(chuàng)造、逆向思維、發(fā)散思維、打破常規(guī)等，在日常學(xué)習(xí)生活中逐漸培養(yǎng)創(chuàng)造力。打素描基本功與訓(xùn)練創(chuàng)造力應(yīng)該是可以同步的，因為素描負(fù)載著全部有價值的藝術(shù)信息，也包含創(chuàng)造力，藝術(shù)的本質(zhì)就是“技法”，回顧一下美術(shù)史就清楚∶只有具備扎實基礎(chǔ)的藝術(shù)家才能被記載。所以，要做個學(xué)藝上的勤奮人。關(guān)于主動性學(xué)習(xí)素描的主動性，一是指行動上的積極實踐，二是指思維上的勤于探索。二者合二為一，光說不練不行，光練不想也不行。某人學(xué)習(xí)很主動、作品很有想法，就有這意思。即使是初學(xué)素描，也不能純客觀地再現(xiàn)，一定要加入自己的主觀感受、理性理解和主觀處理。以通過學(xué)習(xí)素描來感受生活、認(rèn)識藝術(shù)。要用自己的大腦來思考，要用自己的眼睛來看世界。主動性是一種學(xué)習(xí)狀態(tài)，一種會自覺尋求各種方式獲得知識、能力的方法，要珍惜利用書店、圖書館、網(wǎng)絡(luò)、美術(shù)館、博物館等學(xué)習(xí)資源，不要太依賴你的教師，要能積極自修，勤于動腦，放眼世界，要會主動地對各種信息進行知識分類、歸納、批判、取舍。在多元中不迷失自己，在前進中不斷學(xué)習(xí)。到位與拉開“到位”的內(nèi)容包括構(gòu)圖、結(jié)構(gòu)、特征、形體、比例、朝向、節(jié)奏、力度等等，到位是一種基本功、一種能力，它同通常聽到的“準(zhǔn)確”、“逼真”的意思并不完全相同?！暗轿弧备嗟厥侵钢饔^感受、藝術(shù)上的到位，層次要高一些，主觀的發(fā)展空間也大些，就是“真實”也只是藝術(shù)上的真實?！袄_”則是一種人文素質(zhì)，一種主觀手段，“拉開”的內(nèi)容包括∶藝術(shù)語言、形體特征、黑白灰、主次、虛實、強弱、剛?cè)?、濃淡、曲直、前后、疏密等，是更高意義上的簡化與歸納，它比“到位”又更加主觀、自由，是藝術(shù)家個體主觀能動性的精神表現(xiàn)，是一幅成功素描作品的重要指標(biāo)，是風(fēng)格的俗與雅、格調(diào)的高與低的主要區(qū)別所在。“到位”與“拉開”，相當(dāng)于客觀與主觀、描寫與表現(xiàn)、豐富與簡練的關(guān)系；它們對立統(tǒng)一、相互牽扯；過分的“到位”顯得沉悶、平庸，需要“拉開”來注入生氣與活力；過分的“拉開”又顯得花、碎、簡單，需要“到位”加以整合，難就難在如何掌握這個“度”，或者說“恰到好處”，適當(dāng)?shù)摹斑^點”也并無壞處。黑白灰這里強調(diào)“黑白灰”概念的重要性，完全是出于多年經(jīng)驗的明證，因為它的確給我及眾多學(xué)生帶來許多好處。將素描或者所有色彩的學(xué)習(xí)、設(shè)計、創(chuàng)作中導(dǎo)入“黑白灰”概括手法，特別對于初學(xué)者將有事半功倍好的效果。具體的操作是：將表達(dá)的物象，不管有多復(fù)雜、多凌亂，在明度上都把他（它）們概括歸納為畫面黑白灰三大塊，這是一種對宏觀整體的主觀把握和有序組織，而任何一塊又包涵許多層次（調(diào)子、體面），只是它們必須在“黑”、“白”或者“灰”的絕對統(tǒng)治之下；一般“灰”塊的層面較為豐富，“黑”塊的層面較為簡練，三大塊各自的面積具體而定，但必須得有。這樣就可以很容易地克服畫面的“灰”、“亂”、“臟”等初學(xué)者常見毛病，從而使作品的畫面結(jié)構(gòu)更加有力、層次更加分明、組織更加有秩序?！昂诎谆摇笔且环N對畫面主動的整體把握與控制，它的意義可能還會更多。重視修改這里的“修改”類似于一般意義上的調(diào)整，所不同的是：調(diào)整大都基于常規(guī)的循序漸進，而“修改”則是基于主動表現(xiàn)中的果敢、直干；因為敢畫、敢錯，才有“修改”的必要；而每一次的“修改”都是一次思索、進步的過程，有時大刀闊斧的“修改”竟是一種升華、或是一種起死回生。因此，不用怕臟、不用過分地小心謹(jǐn)慎，要敢做敢為；不用擔(dān)心留有改過的痕跡，這痕跡應(yīng)該是前進的足跡。“修改”是一種腳踏實地的學(xué)習(xí)態(tài)度，一種自信進取的學(xué)習(xí)探索。初學(xué)者常常一錯就重來，總想立竿見影、急功近利、一鳴驚人，卻不知是一種浮躁的表現(xiàn)。繪畫類型播報編輯水墨畫明 張宏《華子岡圖》（局部）水墨畫（Chinese Brush Painting）是由水和墨經(jīng)過調(diào)配水和墨的濃度所畫出的畫，是繪畫的一種形式，更多時候，水墨畫被視為中國傳統(tǒng)繪畫，也就是國畫的代表。也稱國畫，中國畫?；镜乃?，僅有水與墨，黑與白色，但進階的水墨畫，也有工筆花鳥畫，色彩繽紛。后者有時也稱為彩墨畫。在中國畫中，以中國畫特有的材料之一，墨為主要原料加以清水的多少引為濃墨、淡墨、干墨、濕墨、焦墨等，畫出不同濃淡（黑、白、灰）層次。別有一番韻味稱為“墨韻”。而形成水墨為主的一種繪畫形式。 [2]水墨畫，是中國繪畫的代表，也就是狹義的“國畫”，并傳到東亞其他地區(qū)?；镜乃?，僅有水與墨，黑與白色，但進階的水墨畫，也有工筆花鳥畫，色彩繽紛，后者有時也稱為彩墨畫。中國水墨畫的特點是：近處寫實，遠(yuǎn)處抽象，色彩微妙，意境豐富。 [3]油畫油畫（an oil painting；a painting in oils），是以用快干性的植物油（亞麻仁油、罌粟油、核桃油等）調(diào)和顏料，在畫布亞麻布，紙板或木板上進行制作的一個畫種。作畫時使用的稀釋劑為揮發(fā)性的松節(jié)油和干性的亞麻仁油等。畫面所附著的顏料有較強的硬度，當(dāng)畫面干燥后，能長期保持光澤。憑借顏料的遮蓋力和透明性能較充分地表現(xiàn)描繪對象，色彩豐富，立體質(zhì)感強。油畫是西畫主要畫種之一。版畫版畫（print）是視覺藝術(shù)的一個重要門類。廣義的版畫可以包括在印刷工業(yè)化以前所印制的圖形普遍具有版畫性質(zhì)。當(dāng)代版畫的概念主要指由藝術(shù)家構(gòu)思創(chuàng)作并且通過制版和印刷程序而產(chǎn)生的藝術(shù)作品，具體說是以刀或化學(xué)藥品等在木、石、麻膠、銅、鋅等版面上雕刻或蝕刻后印刷出來的圖畫。版畫藝術(shù)在技術(shù)上是一直伴隨著印刷術(shù)的發(fā)明與發(fā)展的。古代版畫主要是指木刻，也有少數(shù)銅版刻和套色漏印。獨特的刀味與木味使它在中國文化藝術(shù)史上具有獨立的藝術(shù)價值與地位。水粉畫水粉畫，是用水調(diào)合粉質(zhì)顏料描繪出來的圖畫。水粉顏色一般不透明，有較強的覆蓋能力，可進行深細(xì)致的刻畫。運用得當(dāng)，能兼具油畫的渾厚和水彩畫的明快這二者的藝術(shù)效果。壁畫繪在建筑物的墻壁或天花板上的圖畫。分為粗底壁畫、刷底壁畫和裝貼壁畫等。壁畫是最古老的繪畫形式之一，埃及、印度、巴比倫保存了不少古代壁畫，意大利文藝復(fù)興時期，壁畫創(chuàng)作十分繁榮，產(chǎn)生了許多著名的作品。我國自周代以來，歷代宮室乃至墓室都有飾以壁畫的制度；隨著宗教信仰的興盛，又廣泛應(yīng)用于寺觀、石窟,例如敦煌莫高窟、芮城永樂宮，現(xiàn)在大量保存著著名的佛教壁畫和道教壁畫遺跡。漫畫漫畫是繪畫種類之一，又稱諷刺畫。高速畫一詞來源于意大利文Caricare，義為夸張，后來演變?yōu)閷Ｖ妇哂兄S刺和滑稽意味的圖畫，即Caricature一詞。通過夸張、變形、假定、比喻、象征等手法，以幽默、風(fēng)趣、詼諧的藝術(shù)效果，表現(xiàn)、諷刺、批評（或歌頌）現(xiàn)實生活中的人和事。工筆畫工筆畫是以精謹(jǐn)細(xì)膩的筆法描繪景物的中國畫表現(xiàn)方式。工筆畫須畫在經(jīng)過膠礬加工過的絹或宣紙上。工筆畫一般先要畫好稿本，一幅完整的稿本需要反復(fù)地修改才能定稿，然后復(fù)上有膠礬的宣紙或絹，先用狼毫小筆勾勒，然后隨類敷色，層層渲染，從而取得形神兼?zhèn)涞乃囆g(shù)效果。唐代花鳥畫杰出代表邊鸞能畫出禽鳥活躍之態(tài)、花卉芳艷之色。作《牡丹圖》，光色艷發(fā)，妙窮毫厘。仔細(xì)觀賞并可確信所畫的是中午的牡丹，原來畫面中的貓眼有“豎線”可見。又如五代畫家黃筌寫花卉翎毛因工細(xì)逼真，呼之欲出，而被蒼鷹視為真物而襲之，此見于《圣朝名畫評》：“廣政中昶命筌與其子居農(nóng)于八卦殿畫四時山水及諸禽鳥花卉等，至為精備。其年冬昶將出獵，因按鷹犬，其間一鷹，奮舉臂者不能制，遂縱之，直入殿搏其所畫翎羽。”工筆畫在唐代已盛行起來。所以能取得輝煌的藝術(shù)成就的原因，一方面繪畫技法日臻成熟，另一方面也取決于繪畫的材料改進。初唐時期因絹料的改善而對工筆畫的發(fā)展起到了一定的推動作用，據(jù)米芾的《畫史》所載：“古畫至唐初皆生絹，至吳生、周、韓斡，后來皆以熱湯半熟，入粉捶如銀板，故作人物，精彩入筆。”中國的工筆畫歷史悠久，從戰(zhàn)國到兩宋，工筆畫的創(chuàng)作從幼稚走向了成熟。工筆畫使用“盡其精微”的手段，通過“取神得形，以線立形，以形達(dá)意”獲取神態(tài)與形體的統(tǒng)一。在工筆畫中，無論是人物畫，還是花鳥畫，都是力求于形似，“形”在工筆畫中占有重要的地位。與水墨寫意畫不同，工筆畫更多地關(guān)注“細(xì)節(jié)”，注重寫實，唐代周昉的《簪花仕女圖》《揮扇仕女圖》，張萱的《搗練圖》《虢國夫人游春圖》描繪的都是現(xiàn)實生活，這些作品不僅具有很強的描寫性，而且富有詩意。明末以后，隨著西洋繪畫技法傳入中國，中西繪畫開始相互借鑒，從而使工筆畫的創(chuàng)作在造型更加準(zhǔn)確的同時，保持了線條的自然流動和內(nèi)容的詩情畫意。寫意畫寫意畫是用簡練的筆法描繪景物。寫意畫多畫在生宣上，縱筆揮灑，墨彩飛揚，較工筆畫更能體現(xiàn)所描繪景物的神韻，也更能直接地抒發(fā)作者的感情。寫意畫又分小寫意與大寫意。寫意畫是融詩、書畫、印為一體的藝術(shù)形式。揚州八怪之一的李鱓，喜在畫上作題跋，長長短短，錯落有致，使畫面更加充實，也使氣韻更加酣暢。“畫不足而題足之，畫無聲而詩聲之，互相為用”（葛金《愛日吟廬書畫錄》），既反映了李繪畫的實際，也體現(xiàn)了寫意畫的基本特點。寫意畫是在長期的藝術(shù)實踐中逐步形成的，其中文人參與繪畫，對寫意畫的形成和發(fā)展起了積極的作用。相傳唐代王維因其詩、畫俱佳，故后人稱他的畫為畫中有詩，詩中有畫，他一變勾斫之法，創(chuàng)造了水墨淡，筆意清潤的潑墨山水。董其昌尊他為“文人畫”之祖。五代徐熙先用墨色寫花的枝葉蕊萼，然后略施淡彩，開創(chuàng)了徐體"落墨法"。之后宋代文同興"四君子"畫風(fēng)，明代林良開“院體”寫意之新格，明代沈周善用濃墨淺色，陳白陽重寫實的水墨淡彩，徐青藤更是奇肆狂放求生韻。經(jīng)過長期的藝術(shù)實踐，寫意畫代已進入全盛時期。經(jīng)八大、石濤、李鱓、吳昌碩等發(fā)揚光大，如今寫意畫已是影響最大、流傳最廣的畫法。寫意畫主張神似。董其昌有論：“畫山水唯寫意水墨最妙。何也？形質(zhì)畢肖，則無氣韻；彩色異具，則無筆法?！泵鞔煳碱}畫詩也談道：“不求形似求生韻，根據(jù)皆吾五指裁?！睂懸猱嬜⒅赜媚Ｈ缧煳籍嬆档?，一反勾染烘托的表現(xiàn)手法，以撥墨法寫之。元代吳鎮(zhèn)論畫有云：“墨戲之作，蓋士大夫詞翰之余，適一時之興趣，與夫評畫者流，大有寥廓。嘗觀陳簡齋墨梅詩云：‘意足不求顏色似，前身相馬九方皋?！苏嬷嬚咭??！背橄螽嫵橄罄L畫(31張)抽象藝術(shù)一般被理解為一種不描述自然世界的藝術(shù)，反而透過形狀和顏色以主觀方式來表達(dá)。20世紀(jì)初期，抽象藝術(shù)主要是指表達(dá)自然世界的藝術(shù)，譬如立體主義和未來派藝術(shù)。雖然奪取某事它不變的內(nèi)在質(zhì)量而不是由仿效它的外在表現(xiàn)。抽象派被定義為沒有比喻現(xiàn)實參考的藝術(shù)。更廣闊的定義是以簡化但又可以保留原始自然的方式來描述真實題材。Joan Miro的抽象畫是這個更寬的定義一個好例子。抽象藝術(shù)，特別是由抽象繪畫是現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)中一個非常突出的現(xiàn)象，他完全打破了藝術(shù)原來強調(diào)主題寫實再現(xiàn)的局限，把藝術(shù)基本要素，進行抽象的組合，創(chuàng)造出抽象的形式，因而突破了藝術(shù)必須具有可以辨認(rèn)形象的籓籬，開創(chuàng)了藝術(shù)新的發(fā)展天地。青綠山水畫青綠山水是具有獨特風(fēng)格的山水型，在古代繪畫藝術(shù)上占有重要地位，這種畫以青綠顏色為主，用筆工整，細(xì)筆重彩，色彩濃烈，富有生氣。在勾線內(nèi)用石青石綠著色。色彩濃烈的叫大青綠山水，彩色淺淡些的叫小青綠山水，有用金彩勾勒山石紋理的，顯得畫面富麗堂皇，這種叫金碧山水。水墨山水畫明 張宏《浮嵐暖翠圖》水墨山水是唐代大詩人王維奠定的基礎(chǔ)，不用色彩，以墨的濃淡、干濕，表現(xiàn)峰巒山石景色。王維屬杰出的詩人，又是山水畫家。他常把景色寫成詩，又把詩畫成畫，后人說他的詩中有畫，畫中有詩。到五代水墨畫又有了飛躍，開始用皴法表現(xiàn)效果，使山石更加雄偉壯麗。到明代徐渭的潑墨大寫意在水墨畫上發(fā)展了水墨的技巧把墨灑在紙上，幾筆畫就做到了揮灑自如。他的畫法對清代的石濤、朱耷（八大山人）影響很大。清代的鄭板橋就是受徐渭的影響。白描畫中國畫中完全用線條來表現(xiàn)物象的稱為“白描”。白描有單勾和復(fù)勾兩種。用線一次畫成的叫單勾。單勾有用一色墨勾成的，也有根據(jù)不同對象用濃淡兩種墨勾成的，例如花用淡墨勾，葉用濃墨勾。復(fù)勾是先用淡墨完全勾好，然后根據(jù)具體情況決定復(fù)勾一部分或全部。復(fù)勾的線不能依原路的線刻板地重疊地勾一道。復(fù)勾的目的是加重質(zhì)感和濃淡的變化，使物象顯得更有神采。白描是用線條、用墨線濃淡、粗細(xì)、虛實、輕重、剛?cè)?、曲直的表現(xiàn)技法。宋代李公麟，發(fā)揮了古代傳統(tǒng)繪畫線描作用，創(chuàng)造了白描技法。元代錢選、明代陳洪綬白描畫都很成功。指畫史前壁畫指畫又稱指頭畫，指畫至今已有300多年的歷史，是中國傳統(tǒng)繪畫一個旁支。指頭畫，一般不用或極少用毛筆。史書上記載得比較明確的創(chuàng)始人是清初康熙年間的高其佩。界畫史前壁畫在畫的一部分或大部分，用直尺畫墨線組成的畫。主要表現(xiàn)莊嚴(yán)雄偉的建筑物，如宮殿，廟宇、樓閣、亭臺等。五代時衛(wèi)賢、元代郭忠恕達(dá)到了高峰。清代袁江、袁躍都是畫界畫的。內(nèi)畫史前壁畫內(nèi)畫，是我國一種特有的傳統(tǒng)工藝，它的產(chǎn)生起源于畫鼻煙壺。內(nèi)畫的畫法是以特制的變形細(xì)筆，在玻璃、水晶、琥珀等材質(zhì)的壺坯內(nèi)，手繪出細(xì)致入微的畫面，格調(diào)典雅、筆觸精妙。內(nèi)畫藝術(shù)分為京、冀、魯、粵四大流派，其中尤以冀派內(nèi)畫水平最高、規(guī)模最大、發(fā)展最快、影響最大，不久前已入選國家非物質(zhì)文化遺產(chǎn)保護名錄，冀派內(nèi)畫的發(fā)源地——河北衡水，還被文化部命名為“中國內(nèi)畫之鄉(xiāng)”。法國史前壁畫涂鴉手繪，也叫手工繪畫，或者涂鴉。在中國應(yīng)該算是近些年新起的一行，大概2000年左右吧，如手繪鞋、手繪T恤、人形抱枕、手繪錢包等，都是主要的手繪對象。手繪即在原純色物品基礎(chǔ)上，根據(jù)產(chǎn)品的款式、面料以及顧客的愛好，畫師在鞋面上用專門的手繪顏料繪畫出精美、個性的畫面，在不影響產(chǎn)品使用性的基礎(chǔ)上，更增添其可觀性。如一雙鞋子的畫面，可以是漫畫卡通、真人素描，亦可以是風(fēng)景、圖案或裝飾紋樣；可以是故事片段配上文字，亦可以是顧客自己的所愛圖片加真情告白。只要是可以繪畫的，基本都能在鞋面上呈現(xiàn)出來。簡單地說，鞋面上有手工繪畫畫面的鞋子就稱為手繪鞋。因為其手工性，比印刷品的工業(yè)機械性更具有欣賞價值；因為其繪畫性，比工業(yè)設(shè)計以實用為先更具有藝術(shù)價值。它借鑒了印刷品，但更多的靈感來自于畫家，它以工業(yè)設(shè)計并生產(chǎn)好的產(chǎn)品為載體，但并不為其左右，繪影手繪設(shè)計師可以盡情發(fā)揮。手繪鞋，因為是鞋，是商品，必然具有商品屬性，但是手繪鞋的價值又具有雙重性：一是鞋的價值；二是手繪的價值。因此，它的價格，就不能只用鞋子的價格來比較，還要考慮到手繪的價值。手繪鞋因其能夠充展現(xiàn)年輕人的個性和對藝術(shù)的追求，并極大滿足了現(xiàn)代人DIY的心理，又是一種新奇特的產(chǎn)品，從產(chǎn)生以來一直受到時尚年青人的追捧，在歐美、日韓、臺灣等地刮起了“涂鴉文化”的旋風(fēng)，手繪品開始成為時代的新寵，并開始在中國的大型商場、手繪批發(fā)公司、專賣店里面出現(xiàn)。素描繪畫賞析素描，簡而言之就是單色畫。卻又不盡然，素描過程是同一時間要考慮許多問題的綜合思維活動。當(dāng)今美術(shù)院校各專業(yè)都把它作為基礎(chǔ)課，雖然各專業(yè)的側(cè)重點不同，油畫重體積、調(diào)子，國畫重線條，版畫、設(shè)計重結(jié)構(gòu)等；但素描的共性是差不多的。同時，素描作為獨立的藝術(shù)種類，自有其獨特的藝術(shù)價值。理解多少就能表現(xiàn)多少法國史前壁畫素描是很理性的，素描的過程是腦、眼與手高度結(jié)合的人的活動。大腦是總指揮，充實的理性顯得尤為重要；眼睛偏感性，生動、鮮活，但常常出現(xiàn)片面與誤差；手只是實現(xiàn)腦眼商量的結(jié)果的工具，只要聽話就行了，屬于技術(shù)類（當(dāng)然還有其它工具）。所以大腦要不斷地學(xué)習(xí)與思考，只有思考才會有創(chuàng)新，會思考是人區(qū)別于動物的最大特征。首先，要學(xué)美術(shù)史，了解美術(shù)的發(fā)展過程，了解諸大師獨特的成長過程、藝術(shù)理念、風(fēng)格區(qū)別及技巧表達(dá)，經(jīng)過不斷評判思考后才能給自己正確地定位，促使自己更好地發(fā)展，從而避免茫然失措和重復(fù)浪費；學(xué)習(xí)素描就不能不學(xué)習(xí)達(dá)·芬奇、米開朗基羅、拉斐爾、丟勒、魯本斯、康伯夫，僅僅知道契斯恰科夫是不夠的。解剖學(xué)、透視學(xué)誕生給素描注入了更多的科學(xué)理性因素，而解剖學(xué)、透視學(xué)這兩門學(xué)科就需要花時間精力去學(xué)習(xí)與掌握，比如：表現(xiàn)一個人，僅僅了解表面的輪廓起伏而不知道其下的骨骼構(gòu)造、肌肉走向作用及視覺上的透視變形是不行的；每畫一條線、一個起伏都要能體現(xiàn)解剖學(xué)和透視學(xué)知識，這些內(nèi)在知識能使素描作品更深刻、更完整。構(gòu)圖知識使素描作品更趨于個性化，更有畫面感、更有藝術(shù)性。對結(jié)構(gòu)、特征、比例、形體、朝向、節(jié)奏、對比、點、線、面等要素的熟練運用與駕馭，無疑對素描的充分表達(dá)起到深度與廣度的關(guān)鍵作用，幾何概念的把握與深入塑造技能又起到畫面的宏觀與微觀的調(diào)控作用。基礎(chǔ)·能力·素質(zhì)法國史前壁畫素描是造型藝術(shù)的基礎(chǔ)，素描學(xué)習(xí)訓(xùn)練的目的在于培養(yǎng)學(xué)習(xí)者正確的認(rèn)識能力、觀察能力、造型能力、表達(dá)能力和審美能力，寬厚扎實的基礎(chǔ)已經(jīng)成為進入藝術(shù)殿堂必備的素質(zhì)，就如同高樓大廈的根基，厚實、深藏、無華；也像武術(shù)中的站樁功，站都站不穩(wěn)，“功夫”也只是個花架子。初學(xué)者學(xué)習(xí)素描一定得沉住氣耐住寂寞，要能吃苦，要有難度意識，冰凍三尺非一日之寒，古人百步穿楊、庖丁解牛也非一日之功。素描作為一種繪畫形式，有其自身的藝術(shù)生命力，單憑“基礎(chǔ)”兩字已難以容納素描的全部意義，它不單是打基礎(chǔ)那么簡單。有時，培養(yǎng)良好的審美素質(zhì)，可以為一生的藝術(shù)活動奠定基礎(chǔ)。繪畫體系播報編輯已知最古老的繪畫位于法國肖維巖洞（Grotte Chauvet），部分歷史學(xué)家認(rèn)為它可以追溯至32000年前。那些畫經(jīng)由紅赭石（red ochre）和黑色顏料作雕刻及繪畫，主題有馬、犀牛、獅子、水牛、猛犸象或是打獵歸來的人類。石洞壁畫在世界各地均十分常見，例如法國、西班牙、葡萄牙、中國、澳大利亞及印度等。古代繪畫一般認(rèn)為，從古埃及和中國等東方文明古國發(fā)展起來的東方繪畫，與從古希臘、古羅馬發(fā)展起來的以歐洲為中心的西方繪畫，是世界上的兩大繪畫體系。這兩大繪畫體系在歷史上互有影響，對人類文明都作出了各自獨特的重要貢獻。繪畫本身的可塑性決定了它具有很大的自由創(chuàng)造度，它既可以表現(xiàn)現(xiàn)實的空間世界，也可以表現(xiàn)超時空的想象世界，畫家可以通過繪畫來表現(xiàn)對生活和理想的各種獨特的情感和理解，因為繪畫是可視的靜態(tài)藝術(shù)，可以長期對畫中具有美學(xué)性的形式和內(nèi)容進行欣賞、玩味、體驗，所以它是人們最容易接受而且最喜愛的一種藝術(shù)。中國繪畫中國繪畫又名國畫，是現(xiàn)代人為區(qū)別于西洋畫而對中國傳統(tǒng)繪畫的泛稱。它包括卷軸畫、壁畫、年畫、版畫等各種各樣的門類。有時特指以中國獨有的筆墨等工具材料按照長期形成的傳統(tǒng)而創(chuàng)作的繪畫。中國畫現(xiàn)分為三大畫科：人物畫、山水畫、花鳥畫；有工筆與寫意兩大種畫法；有卷、軸、冊、屏等多種裝裱形制。明 張宏《青綠山水圖》中國繪畫，分工筆畫和寫意畫兩科，也有兼工帶寫。這三種不同的表現(xiàn)形式，工筆畫用筆工整細(xì)致，敷色層層渲染，細(xì)節(jié)明徹入微，要用極細(xì)膩的筆觸，描繪物象。寫意畫用簡練、豪放、灑落的筆墨，描繪物象的形神，抒發(fā)作者的感情。寫意畫在表現(xiàn)對象上是運用概括、夸張的手法，豐富的聯(lián)想，用筆雖簡，但意境深遠(yuǎn)，具有一定的表現(xiàn)力。它要有高度概括能力，要有以少勝多的含蓄意境，落筆要準(zhǔn)確，運筆熟練，能得心應(yīng)手，意到筆隨。從唐代起就有這兩種繪畫風(fēng)格。有的介于兩者之間，兼工帶寫，如在一幅畫中，松行用寫意手法，樓閣用工筆，使兩者結(jié)合起來，發(fā)揮用筆、用墨、用色的技巧。按世界性文化藝術(shù)進程，中國繪畫廣義地指傳統(tǒng)中國畫，既有狹義的相互獨立，也有廣義地與西方美術(shù)融合融匯，其主要表現(xiàn)為藝術(shù)構(gòu)思和圖畫寓意的顯著不同。南宋 夏圭《雪堂客話圖》印度繪畫印度繪畫，印度藝術(shù)是印度次大陸中不同藝術(shù)學(xué)派的一個總稱。印度繪畫的種類十分廣泛，例如有埃洛拉石窟的大型濕壁畫、錯綜復(fù)雜的莫臥兒微型畫、坦賈武爾學(xué)派的金屬裝飾畫。腱陀羅（Gandhar）至塔克西拉（Taxila）的繪畫受到西方伊朗藝術(shù)的影響。而有東方特色的繪畫則在那爛陀藝術(shù)學(xué)派附近發(fā)展。那些作品大部分都受到印度神話的不同場景所啟發(fā)。巖石壁畫最早的印度繪畫為史前時期的巖石壁畫（Petroglyph），其發(fā)現(xiàn)地點位于比莫貝卡特石窟（Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka），部分年代可以追溯至前5500年。它在幾千年間直到7世紀(jì)不斷有壁畫完成，當(dāng)中突出的例子有阿旖陀石窟中雕刻柱上的印度繪畫，它主要由礦物中提煉出來的紅色及橙色顏料組成。印度馬哈拉施特拉邦的阿旖陀石窟為前2世紀(jì)的石切建筑（Rock cut architecture），在其中收藏了被認(rèn)為在佛教宗教藝術(shù)上及通用圖像藝術(shù)上均可被稱為杰作的繪畫及雕刻。印度繪畫的“六支”印度繪畫在前1世紀(jì)，印度的繪畫發(fā)展出謝丹伽（sadanga），意即"六支"，說明了印度傳統(tǒng)繪畫的六種法則。3世紀(jì)哲學(xué)家伐蹉衍那（Vātsyāyana）的著作《欲經(jīng)》中在13世紀(jì)加入的一條注釋列舉了以上六點：1.形別（Rupabheda），對于對象外形的認(rèn)知。2.諸量（Pramanam），對于對象的大小及結(jié)構(gòu)有正確的認(rèn)識。3.情（Bhava），對于對象外形的感覺。4.美（Lavanya Yojanam），加入優(yōu)雅及藝術(shù)性的表現(xiàn)方法去表達(dá)對象。5.似（Sadrisyam），與對象的相似性。6.筆墨（Varnikabhanga），以藝術(shù)性的手法使用顏色及畫筆。從其后出現(xiàn)的佛教繪畫可以看出六支被后期出現(xiàn)的印度畫家采用，并成為他們作品的基本元素。中世紀(jì)的印度繪畫開始發(fā)生幾個重大的轉(zhuǎn)變，其原因是受到伊朗藝術(shù)的影響。在此期間印度繪畫出現(xiàn)了不同的學(xué)派，包括：德干小型畫畫派（Deccan School of Miniature Painting），受到波斯及土耳其影響并溶合了當(dāng)?shù)卦囟?。名作有胡塞因·沙黑手稿（Husayan Shahi Manuscript）、拉迦瑪拉（Ragamala）等。岡格拉畫派（Kangra School），由拉杰普特人（Rajput）提倡的帕哈里繪畫（Pahari painting）畫派，并成為帕哈里繪畫的發(fā)展中心。當(dāng)中最著名的主題為黑天與羅陀（Radha）的傳說。莫臥兒畫派（Mughal）。拉杰普特畫派（Rajput）。中世紀(jì)后期則由有"印度寫實畫之父"之稱的拉加·拉維·維馬（Raja Ravi Verma）所主導(dǎo)。中世紀(jì)代表畫家：達(dá)·芬奇、拉斐爾、倫勃現(xiàn)代的印度繪畫在20世紀(jì)出現(xiàn)，并受到歐洲的影響而出現(xiàn)了孟加拉畫派。此時的印度繪畫特色為表現(xiàn)出高度的個人主義，而這時的印度畫家亦人才輩出，有加入了中國及日本風(fēng)格的阿巴寧德羅納特·泰戈爾（Abanindranath Tagore），與及其他多才多藝的有名畫家如羅賓德拉納德?泰戈爾（Rabindranath Tagore）、難陀婆藪（Nandalal Bose）、賈米尼·羅（Jamini Roy）等。中國繪畫史播報編輯北宋 郭熙《早春圖》中國的繪畫工藝十分古老，可以上溯到原始社會的新石器時代，距今至少有七千余年的。最初的中國繪畫，是畫在陶器、地面、和巖壁上的，漸而發(fā)展到畫在墻壁、絹、和紙上。使用的基本工具是毛筆和墨，以及天然礦物質(zhì)顏料。在無數(shù)畫家不斷探索、創(chuàng)新的努力之下，逐漸形成了鮮明的民族風(fēng)格和民族氣派，并有著自己獨立的繪畫美學(xué)體系。照這么說中國工藝也十分古老，也可稱之史前繪畫。中國繪畫的歷史最早可追溯到原始社會新石器時代的彩陶紋飾和巖畫，原始繪畫技巧雖幼稚，但已掌握了初步的造型能力，對動物、植物等動靜形態(tài)亦能抓住主要特征，用以表達(dá)先民的信仰、愿望以及對于生活的美化裝飾。先秦繪畫己在一些古籍中有了記載，如周代宮、明堂、廟祠中的歷史人物、戰(zhàn)國漆器、青銅器紋飾，楚國出土帛畫等，都己達(dá)到較高的水平。秦漢王朝是中國早期歷史建立的中央集權(quán)制大國，疆域遼闊，國勢強盛，絲綢之路溝通著中外藝術(shù)交流，繪畫藝術(shù)空前發(fā)展與繁榮。尤其是漢代盛行厚葬之風(fēng)，其墓室壁畫、畫像磚、畫像石，以及隨葬帛畫，生動塑造了現(xiàn)實、歷史、神話人物形象，具有動態(tài)性、情節(jié)性，在反映現(xiàn)實生活方面取得了重大成就。其畫風(fēng)往往氣魄宏大，筆勢流動，既有粗獷豪放，又有細(xì)密瑰麗，內(nèi)容豐富博雜，形式多姿多彩。明 唐寅《落霞孤鶩圖》魏晉南北朝時期，戰(zhàn)爭頻仍，民生疾苦，但是繪畫仍取得了較大的發(fā)展，苦難給佛教提供了傳播的土壤，佛教美術(shù)勃然興起。如新疆克孜爾石窟，甘肅麥積山石窟，敦煌莫高窟都保存了大量的該時期壁畫，藝術(shù)造詣極高。由于上層社會對繪事的愛好和參與，除了工匠，還涌現(xiàn)出一批有文化教養(yǎng)的上流社會知名畫家，如顧愷之等。這一時期玄學(xué)流行，文人崇尚飄逸通脫，畫史畫論等著作開始出現(xiàn)，山水畫、花鳥畫開始萌芽，這個時期的繪畫注重精神狀態(tài)的刻畫及氣質(zhì)的表現(xiàn)，以文學(xué)為題材的繪畫日趨流行。隋唐時國家統(tǒng)一，社會相對穩(wěn)定，經(jīng)濟比較繁榮，對外交流活躍，給繪畫藝術(shù)注入了新的機運，在人物畫方面雖然佛教壁畫中西域畫風(fēng)仍在流行，但吳道子、周昉等人具有鮮明中原畫風(fēng)的作品占了絕對優(yōu)勢，民族風(fēng)格日益成熟，展子虔、李思訓(xùn)、王維、張繰等人的山水畫、花鳥畫己工整富麗，取得了較高的成就。在中國，繪畫的真實性在12世紀(jì)宋朝時已發(fā)展到高峰，尤以郭熙的早春圖為寫實主義的巔峰，以后就開始轉(zhuǎn)向主觀情趣的抒發(fā)，自王維被盛贊詩中有畫，畫中有詩后，文人畫悠久的傳統(tǒng)便延續(xù)至今。又自北宋後，中國繪畫漸趨注重筆墨情趣的形式主義，舉例而言文徵明的畫即意不在山水的描繪，而是藉由山水來堆砌各種運筆的手法。到15世紀(jì)的明朝末年，清朝初期時，畫家已經(jīng)開始向表現(xiàn)自我方向轉(zhuǎn)化，不注重客觀世界的描繪，而是，八大山人、揚州八怪等都有很強的自我風(fēng)格，而不再計較再現(xiàn)自然的真實性。明 張宏《村徑柴門圖》五代兩宋之后，中國繪畫藝術(shù)進一步成熟完備，出現(xiàn)了一個鼎盛時期，朝廷設(shè)置畫院，擴充機構(gòu)編制，延攬人才，并授以職銜，宮廷繪畫盛極一時，文人學(xué)士亦把繪畫視作雅事并提出了鮮明的審美標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，故畫家輩出，佳作紛呈，而且在理論上和創(chuàng)作上亦形成了一套獨立的體系，其內(nèi)容、形式、技法都出現(xiàn)了豐富精采、多頭發(fā)展的繁榮局面。繪畫發(fā)展至元、明、清，文人畫獲得了突出的發(fā)展。在題材上，山水畫、花鳥畫占據(jù)了絕對的地位。文人畫強調(diào)抒發(fā)主觀情緒，“不求形似”、“無求于世”，不趨附大眾審美要求，借繪畫以示高雅，表現(xiàn)閑情逸趣，倡導(dǎo)“師造化”、“法心源”，強調(diào)人品畫品的統(tǒng)一，并且注重將筆墨情趣與詩、書、印有機融為一體，形成了獨特的繪畫樣式，涌現(xiàn)了眾多的杰出畫家、畫派，以及難以數(shù)計的優(yōu)秀作品。中國繪畫是中國文化的重要組成部分，根植于民族文化土壤之中。它不單純拘泥于外表形似，更強調(diào)神似。它以毛筆、水墨、宣紙為特殊材料，建構(gòu)了獨特的透視理論，大膽而自由地打破時空限制，具有高度的概括力與想象力，這種出色的技巧與手段，不僅使中國傳統(tǒng)繪畫獨具藝術(shù)魄力，而且日益為世界現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)所借鑒吸收。學(xué)習(xí)方法從嚴(yán)格意義上講，學(xué)習(xí)繪畫之初要先從學(xué)習(xí)素描開始，一般從石膏幾何體、靜物、人物石膏像、結(jié)構(gòu)、人物頭像等這樣循序漸進的學(xué)習(xí)方過程，但是很多初學(xué)者沒有這種條件，有的考生臨時“抱佛腳”，在沒有接觸基礎(chǔ)訓(xùn)練時，直接畫人物頭像，這樣的學(xué)生往往不可能畫得好。培養(yǎng)正確的學(xué)習(xí)方法，也就是建立在對物體的深入理解上。畫素描要懂得素描的基本要素，如形體、比例、結(jié)構(gòu)、明暗調(diào)子、質(zhì)量感和空間感等。這些名詞看起來好像不難，但具體的操作確實是很不容易的。這里先來理解一下頭部的形體結(jié)構(gòu)及比例。頭部的形體，從整體上可以概括成一個卵形或立方體或楔形，進一步分析知道顱骨象球形，額骨呈扁方形，額骨之下至下頷骨底的正面呈倒梯形，下大上小的梯形體的鼻子豎于其間。頭部的比例有“長三停、橫五眼”。這是對頭部一般規(guī)律的總結(jié)，但是個體之間還存在著一定的差異。面對一個模特，初學(xué)者可能在短時間內(nèi)也可完成一幅肖像，但畫面簡單空洞，需要多加練習(xí)，而受過良好素描訓(xùn)練的人卻可表現(xiàn)得深入而豐富。因為視覺上的敏感不同，感覺到的內(nèi)容就會有差異，后者可以抓住物體的本質(zhì)，在表達(dá)中能夠概括簡潔、明確肯定地表達(dá)對象，在短時間里抓住對象的最基本的特征，培養(yǎng)敏銳的觀察方法。整體意識整體意識的建立在繪畫領(lǐng)域中是一個很重要的因素，對學(xué)生將來的繪畫發(fā)展產(chǎn)生很大的影響。無論是從事何種繪畫創(chuàng)作，都要涉及這個問題。整體是相對局部而言，局部是整體的一部分，局部存在于整體之中，而整體通過局部得到體現(xiàn)。對于初學(xué)者來說，一方面是加強對整體意識的理解，另一方面是在觀察和表現(xiàn)中關(guān)注整體關(guān)系，克服注意力局限在某一個點上的不良習(xí)慣。例如在畫一個頭像時，必須整體地觀察對象，如畫眼睛時要考慮到和耳朵或鼻子之間的關(guān)系，而不能孤立地畫眼睛，陷入局部，必須相互對比，要把它們有機地聯(lián)系起來。整體存在于造型的各種因素里，從輪廓到色調(diào)，從形體表現(xiàn)到空間表現(xiàn)無處不在。培養(yǎng)整體意識可從觀察事物入手，多觀察多比較，這樣才能明確各個事物之間的關(guān)系，以便更好地把握整體。從整體到局部、從局部再到整體，貫穿于整個作畫的過程中，反復(fù)比較，培養(yǎng)局部與整體關(guān)系的能力，建立良好的整體意識。體積意識把握形體、表現(xiàn)體積感和空間感，是基礎(chǔ)素描另外一個重要因素，不但要明確物體的形狀、比例、大小，同時還要克服平面描繪，對造型要有最基本的理解和掌握。沒有體積空間意識，就不能養(yǎng)成對體積空間的觀察習(xí)慣，更不能表現(xiàn)好空間關(guān)系。對空間的表現(xiàn)是繪畫的基本能力。如：人物頭部在正面時眼睛和耳朵在同一方向，初學(xué)者往往表現(xiàn)不出它的空間感，沒有空間感就表現(xiàn)不出體積感?！胺叫巍焙汀胺綁K”是不一樣的，方形是一個平面，而方塊是一個體積。所以應(yīng)該建立空間意識來表現(xiàn)物體的體積的能力。表現(xiàn)力在素描教學(xué)中是很關(guān)鍵的。有了敏銳的觀察力，還要建立整體意識和體積空間意識，因此要實現(xiàn)這些還需要有表現(xiàn)的能力。素描是表現(xiàn)或再現(xiàn)對象的最基本的繪畫形式。素描作為學(xué)習(xí)繪畫的方法和手段，必須掌握形體構(gòu)成因素和結(jié)構(gòu)，理解光影色調(diào)，理解邊緣輪廓線和明暗交界線，以及對節(jié)奏的感受。素描相對色彩而言更具理性，特別是基礎(chǔ)素描的訓(xùn)練。用理性指導(dǎo)觀察，用觀察豐富理性，把素描建立在理性的認(rèn)識上，從而達(dá)到素描的完整性。以上就素描教學(xué)中的一些較為突出的要點進行分析理解。繪畫是一門技巧課，必須從實踐中獲得飛躍。所以動手實踐是非常重要的，有了量的積累，才能得到質(zhì)的飛躍。打好堅實的素描基礎(chǔ)才能考出理想的成績繪畫是一種在二維的平面上以手工方式臨摹自然的藝術(shù)，在中世紀(jì)的歐洲，常把繪畫稱作“猴子的藝術(shù)”，因為如同猴子喜歡模仿人類活動一樣，繪畫也是模仿場景。在20世紀(jì)以前，繪畫模仿得越真實，技術(shù)越高超。不同的畫家風(fēng)格不同，也有不同的藝術(shù)價值。20世紀(jì)初，有些畫家的風(fēng)格因評畫者不能接受而被冷落甚至貶低，這就是為什么有些畫家畫的很好而并不出名或甚至被凍死、餓死的緣故。油畫及水彩畫是西方文化藝術(shù)中知名度最高的繪畫門類，它們在風(fēng)格和主題上有豐富且復(fù)雜的傳統(tǒng)。在東方，黑色及彩色的水墨畫則主導(dǎo)了繪畫媒體的選擇，但是它在風(fēng)格和主題上和西方一樣同樣有著豐富且復(fù)雜的傳統(tǒng)。新手上路成長任務(wù)編輯入門編輯規(guī)則本人編輯我有疑問內(nèi)容質(zhì)疑在線客服官方貼吧意見反饋投訴建議舉報不良信息未通過詞條申訴投訴侵權(quán)信息封禁查詢與解封?2024?Baidu?使用百度前必讀?|?百科協(xié)議?|?隱私政策?|?百度百科合作平臺?|?京ICP證030173號?京公網(wǎng)安備110000020000

Chinese Painting – China Online Museum

Chinese Painting – China Online Museum

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Chinese Painting

? ? ? ?The history of Chinese painting can be compared to a symphony. The styles and traditions in figure, landscape, and bird-and-flower painting have formed themes that continue to blend to this day into a single piece of music. Painters through the ages have made up this “orchestra,” composing and performing many movements and variations within this tradition.

? ? ?It was from the Six Dynasties (222–589) to the Tang dynasty (618–907) that the foundations of figure painting were gradually established by such major artists as Gu Kaizhi (顧愷之) and Wu Daozi (吳道子). Landscape painting started to become popular in the Sui (581–618) and Tang dynasties by the effort of Zhan Ziqian (展子虔), Li Sixun (李思訓(xùn)), and Wang Wei (王維). Variations based on geographic distinctions?then took shape in the Five Dynasties period (907–960). For example, Jing Hao (荊浩) and Guan Tong (關(guān)仝) depicted the drier and monumental peaks to the north while Dong Yuan (董源) and Juran (巨然) represented the lush and rolling hills to the south in Jiangnan (south of the Yangtze River). In bird-and-flower painting, the noble Tang court decorative manner was passed down in Sichuan through Huang Quan (黃筌)’s style, which contrasts with the more relaxed style?of Xu Xi (徐熙) in the Jiangnan area.Read more: Six Dynasties Period, Tang Dynasty, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period

Gu Kaizhi

Zhan Ziqian

Dong Yuan

? ? ? In the Song dynasty (960–1279), landscape painters such as Fan Kuan (范寬), Guo Xi (郭熙)?and Li Tang (李唐) created new manners based on previous traditions. Guided by the taste of the emperors, especially Zhao Ji (趙佶), painters at the court academy focused on observing nature combined with “poetic sentiment” to reinforce the expression of both subject and artist. The focus on poetic sentiment led to the combination of painting, poetry, and calligraphy (the “Three Perfections”) in the same work (often as an album leaf or fan) by the Southern Song (1127–1279). Scholars earlier in the Northern Song (960–1126) thought that painting as an art had to go beyond just the “appearance of forms” in order to express the ideas and cultivation of the artist. This became the foundation of the movement known as literati (scholar) painting.Read more: Song Dynasty

Fan Kuan

Zhao Ji

Ma Yuan

Yang Wujiu

Xia Gui

? ? ?The goal of literati painters in the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), including Zhao Mengfu (趙孟頫) and the Four Yuan Masters, namely Huang Gongwang (黃公望), Wu Zhen (吳鎮(zhèn)), Ni Zan (倪瓚)?and Wang Meng (王蒙), was in part to revive the antiquity of the Tang and Northern Song as a starting point for personal expression. This variation on revivalism transformed these old “melodies” into new and personal tunes, some of which gradually developed into important traditions of their own in the Ming and Qing dynasties. As in poetry and calligraphy, the focus on personal cultivation became an integral part of expression in painting.Read more: Yuan Dynasty, Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty

Zhao Mengfu

Huang Gongwang

Wu Zhen

Ni Zan

Wang Meng

? ? ? ?Starting from the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), painting often became distinguished into local schools that formed important clusters in the history of art. The styles of “Wu School” artists led by Shen Zhou (沈周)?and Wen Zhengming (文徵明) in the Suzhou area, for example, were based on the cultivated approaches of scholar painting by the Four Yuan Masters. The “Zhe School” led by Dai Jin (戴進) consisted mostly of painters from the Zhejiang and Fujian areas; also active at court, they created a direct and liberated manner of monochrome ink painting based on Southern Song models.Read more: Ming Dynasty, Four Masters of the Ming Dynasty, Wu School of Painting

Shen Zhou

Wen Zhengming

Qiu Ying

Shen Zhou

Tang Yin

Dai Jin

? ? ? ?The late Ming master Dong Qichang (董其昌) from Songjiang (modern Shanghai) and the Four Wangs, namely Wang Shimin (王時敏), Wang Jian (王鑑), Wang Hui (王翬) and Wang Yuanqi (王原祁) of the early Qing dynasty (1644–1911) adopted the lofty literati goal of unifying certain ancient styles into a “grand synthesis” so that all in mind and nature could be rendered with brush and ink. The result was the vastly influential “Orthodox School”, which was supported by the Manchu Qing emperors and was in contrast to a group of Individualist painters, such as?Zhu Da (朱耷) and Shitao (石濤).

Dong Qichang

Wang Hui

Zhu Da

? ? ? In the mid Qing dynasty, the court also took an interest in Western painting techniques (brought by European missionaries) that involved volume and perspective, which became known to and used by some Chinese painters to create a fused style. Outside the court, the major commercial city of Yangzhou in Jiangsu developed the trend toward individualism to become a center for “eccentric” yet professional painters, such as Zheng Xie (鄭燮). It also spread to Shanghai, where the styles of artists like Ren Bonian (任伯年) and Wu Changshuo (吳昌碩) were also inspired by “non-orthodox” manners, which themselves became models for later artists.Read more: Qing Dynasty, Modern China

Lang Shining

Ren Bonian

Qi Baishi

? ? ? ?In the early 20th century, the Shanghai regional style was passed on to Beijing through the art of Chen Shizeng (陳師曾) and Qi Baishi (齊白石). In southern China, on the other hand, Gao Qifeng (高奇峰) and others who had visited Japan inaugurated a “New National Painting” movement, which in turn gave rise to a Cantonese, or Lingnan, regional style that incorporated Euro-Japanese characteristics.? ? ? ?Increasingly, by the mid-1920s, young Chinese artists were attracted not just to Japan but also to Paris and German art centers. A trio of these artists brought back some understanding of the essential contemporary European traditions and movements. Liu Haisu (劉海粟) was first attracted to Impressionist art, while Lin Fengmian (林風(fēng)眠) was inspired by the experiments in color and pattern of Henri Matisse and the Fauves. Xu Beihong (徐悲鴻) eschewed European Modernist movements in favor of more conservative Parisian academic styles.? ? ? ?Throughout the 1950s, as Socialist Realist standards were gradually implemented. While the early 1960s provided a moment of political relaxation for Chinese artists, the Cultural Revolution of 1966–76 brought unprecedented hardships.? ? ? ?The passing of Mao and Maoism after 1976 brought a new and sometimes refreshing chapter in the arts under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. In the 1980s a resurgence of traditional Chinese painting occurred, featuring the return of formerly disgraced artists, including Li Keran (李可染) and Huang Yongyu (黃永玉), and the emergence of such fresh talents as Wu Guanzhong (吳冠中). Chinese artists began to experiment with new subjects and techniques in their attempt to bring Chinese painting to a new height.

? ? ? ?Thus, throughout the ages, a hallmark of Chinese painting has been the pursuit of individuality and innovation within the framework of one’s “symphonic” heritage. The painting galleries at China Online Museum represent a selection of individual “performances” in order to provide an overview of some major traditions and movements in Chinese painting.Based on articles from the National Palace Museum in Taipei.

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Fu Baoshi: Mountains in Sichuan

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Huang Gongwang: Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains

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Lang Shining: Brocade of Spring

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Lang Shining: Immortal Blossoms of an Eternal Spring

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Lang Shining: One Hundred Horses

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Lang Shining: Yellow Panther

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Li Keran: Bathing Buffalo under a Willow Tree

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Li Sixun: Sailboats and Pavilions

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Lu Zhi: Pear Flowers and Twin Swallows

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Ma Lin: Layered Icy Silk

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Ma Yuan: On a Mountain Path in Spring

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Miao Fu: Fish and Water Plants

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Qian Xuan: Plum Blossoms

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Qing Court: Along the River during the Qingming Festival

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Qiu Ying: Fishermen in Reclusion at the Lotus Stream

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Qiu Ying: Red Cliff

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Shen Zhou: Lofty Mount Lu

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Shen Zhou: Poet on a Mountaintop

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Sheng Changnian: Willow and Swallows

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Shitao: Wilderness Colors

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Tang Yin: Making Tea

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Wang Hui: Peach Blossom, Fishing Boat

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Wang Meng: Ge Zhichuan Moving to the Mountains

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Wang Mian: Ink Plum

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Wang Mian: Plum Blossoms in Early Spring

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Wang Shimin: Poetic Feeling of Du Fu

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Wen Tong: Ink Bamboo

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Wen Zhengming: A Graceful Gathering at the Orchid Pavilion

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Wen Zhengming: Peach Blossom Spring

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Wu Guanzhong: Lotus Pond

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Wu Guanzhong: Master of the Nets Garden

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Wu Guanzhong: Twin Swallows (1981)

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Wu Guanzhong: Wistaria (1990)

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Xu Beihong: Double Happiness

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Yuan Yunfu: Golden Green Lotus Pond

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Yun Shouping: Sunset along the Floral Embankment

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Zhan Ziqian: Spring Excursion

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Zhang Daqian: Autumn Colors in the Pond (1978)

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Zhang Daqian: Lotuses in Five Colors (1935)

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Zhang Zeduan: Along the River During the Qingming Festival

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Zhao Ji: Five-colored Parakeet

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Zhao Mengfu: Autumn Colors on the Que and Hua Mountains

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Zhao Wuchao: Brassica Flowers

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Zhao Wuchao: Twin Magpies

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Zheng Xie: Bamboo, Rocks and Secluded Orchids

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Zou Chuanan: Lotus Fragrance

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Traditional Chinese Painting

977 Words/4 Minutes, By Nora Zheng, Updated January 13, 2023

The History of Chinese Painting

Chinese painting, commonly known as “dan qing/丹青” or “guo hua/國畫” in Chinese (meaning the national painting), is mainly drawn on silk or paper and then framed in a scroll. It involves the use of a brush, ink, and paint. To draw a Chinese painting, a set of fixed rules and artistic forms are to be followed, which are passed down from generation to generation.

Chinese painting enjoys a time-honored history. Over the past thousands of years, with the accumulative and innovative efforts of painters and craftsmen, among whom the majority are the Han Chinese while the others are ethnic minorities, a unique Chinese painting system has been formed featuring rich art forms of various ethnic groups, exerting a profound influence on the Oriental art circle and even that of the world. The history of Chinese painting can be traced back to the primitive society of the Neolithic Age when colored pottery and rock paintings made their way into the daily life of ordinary people. The painting techniques found in these works were quite simple, yet demonstrated that the people back then had a basic mastery of portrait painting. They were able to reflect the striking features of the animals and plants to show their aspiration and wishes for a better life.

Deeply rooted in the cultural identity of the Chinese nation, Chinese painting constitutes a vital part of the traditional Chinese culture. It lays an equal emphasis on both the art form and the spirit of the painted object. The use of a writing brush, ink, and rice paper contributes to a unique theoretical system of Chinese painting. The drawings are not limited to time or space but call for imagination and simplicity. These unique painting techniques not only showcase the charm of Chinese painting but also enrich the world’s art treasury trove.

Chinese Painting and Its Culture

In terms of the theme and artistic form, Chinese painting embodies the ideology and aesthetic orientation of the Chinese nation. It is also a reflection of the Chinese people’s understanding of nature and society as well as the related politics, philosophy, religion, morality and art. The earliest Chinese painting can be found in the images painted on the rocks and potteries of primitive society, and in the Warring States Period, people drew images on silk. All these works are characterized by the use of simple lines, laying a foundation for the future development of painting techniques. During the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties and the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the theme of painting shifted to religion, while other paintings depicting historical figures and literary elements also accounted for a large proportion. Meanwhile, landscape paintings and bird and flower paintings were in their burgeoning phase. With all these new developments, a theoretical foundation based on which a painting was judged was also formed during this period. The Sui and Tang Dynasties witnessed the boom of Chinese painting. Landscape paintings, as well as bird and flower paintings, entered a mature stage of development, while religious paintings experienced their prime time and became more accessible to ordinary people. Back then, figure painting mainly depicted the daily life of the nobility and had its unique way of characterization. During the Five Dynasties and the Northern and Southern Song Dynasties, the focus of figure painting shifted to the daily life of ordinary people, while religious paintings started to decline. As a result, landscape painting and bird and flower painting became the mainstream of Chinese painting. Later, the emergence of humanistic paintings enriched the themes and drawing techniques of Chinese painting. During the Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties, landscape paintings and bird and flower paintings excelled in other forms to become the mainstream of Chinese painting. The paintings of other styles were simply copied from one another, consequently withering away in people’s lives.

Initially, Chinese paintings were created for the appreciation of the nobility but as time elapsed, they gradually became accessible to the ordinary folk. Accordingly, the themes also witnessed a profound change. The painters started to focus on the reality of society and created a wealth of fine works that reflected the features of their age.

Chinese Painting, Aesthetics, and Philosophy

The theme, portrayal, and techniques of Chinese painting offer insights into traditional Chinese aesthetic standards and philosophy. When observing an object, painters would usually approach it from both micro and macro perspectives and regard themselves as participants rather than outsiders. So their perception would not be fixed on a certain perspective or simply focus on the exterior of the object. Usually, the paintings are subject to the ideological influence of the painters, and sometimes enlighten people on moral education. Though the objects can be landscapes, birds, or flowers, they are mingled with the perceptions of the painters when created on a piece of paper or silk. The paintings, therefore, are associated with the ideology and aesthetic orientation of the painters and embody the idea that man is an integral part of nature.

Where can I appreciate and learn Chinese painting during my trip to China?

Children and students accompanied by their parents can have a Chinese painting learning experience in most tourist cities. Beijing hutong, Shanghai Art Gallery, the ancient city of Xi'an, and the West Street of Yangshuo are all ideal places for you to have a glimpse of Chinese painting.

Hi, I’m Nora Zheng, if you like my article, please share it with your friends. Any sugguestions on this article, please contact me. Thanks!

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Painting - Techniques, Methods, Media | Britannica

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painting

Table of Contents

painting

Table of Contents

IntroductionElements and principles of designElements of designLineShape and massColourTextureVolume and spaceTime and movementPrinciples of designDesign relationships between painting and other visual artsTechniques and methodsMediumsTemperaFrescoFresco seccoBuon frescoSgraffitoOilWatercolourInkGouacheEncausticCaseinSynthetic mediumsOther mediumsFrench pastelsOil pastelsGlass paintingsIvory paintingLacquerSand, or dry, paintingPaperCollageMechanical mediumsMixed mediumsForms of paintingMural paintingEasel and panel paintingMiniature paintingManuscript illumination and related formsScroll paintingScreen and fan paintingPanoramasModern formsImagery and subject matterKinds of imageryKinds of subject matterDevotionalNarrativePortraitureGenreLandscapeStill lifeOther subjectsSymbolism

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Visual Arts

Painting

Techniques and methods Paul Cézanne: Mont Sainte-Victoire, Seen from the Bibemus QuarryMont Sainte-Victoire, Seen from the Bibemus Quarry, oil on canvas by Paul Cézanne, 1897; in the Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.(more)Whether a painting reached completion by careful stages or was executed directly by a hit-or-miss alla prima method (in which pigments are laid on in a single application) was once largely determined by the ideals and established techniques of its cultural tradition. For example, the medieval European illuminator’s painstaking procedure, by which a complex linear pattern was gradually enriched with gold leaf and precious pigments, was contemporary with the Song Chinese Chan (Zen) practice of immediate, calligraphic brush painting, following a contemplative period of spiritual self-preparation. More recently, artists have decided the techniques and working methods best suited to their aims and temperaments. In France in the 1880s, for instance, Seurat might be working in his studio on drawings, tone studies, and colour schemes in preparation for a large composition at the same time that, outdoors, Monet was endeavouring to capture the effects of afternoon light and atmosphere, while Cézanne analyzed the structure of the mountain Sainte-Victoire with deliberated brush strokes, laid as irrevocably as mosaic tesserae (small pieces, such as marble or tile). The kind of relationship established between artist and patron, the site and subject matter of a painting commission, and the physical properties of the medium employed may also dictate working procedure. Peter Paul Rubens, for example, followed the businesslike 17th-century custom of submitting a small oil sketch, or modella, for his client’s approval before carrying out a large-scale commission. Siting problems peculiar to mural painting, such as spectator eye level and the scale, style, and function of a building interior, had first to be solved in preparatory drawings and sometimes with the use of wax figurines or scale models of the interior. Scale working drawings are essential to the speed and precision of execution demanded by quick-drying mediums, such as buon fresco (see below) on wet plaster and acrylic resin on canvas. The drawings traditionally are covered with a network of squares, or “squared-up,” for enlarging on the surface of the support. Some modern painters preferred to outline the enlargement of a sketch projected directly onto the support by epidiascope (a projector for images of both opaque and transparent objects). In Renaissance painters’ workshops, pupil assistants not only ground and mixed the pigments and prepared the supports and painting surfaces but often laid in the outlines and broad masses of the painting from the master’s design and studies. The inherent properties of its medium or the atmospheric conditions of its site may themselves preserve a painting. The wax solvent binder of encaustic paintings (see below) both retains the intensity and tonality of the original colours and protects the surface from damp. And, while prehistoric rock paintings and buon frescoes are preserved by natural chemical action, the tempera pigments thought to be bound only with water on many ancient Egyptian murals are protected by the dry atmosphere and unvarying temperature of the tombs. It has, however, been customary to varnish oil paintings, both to protect the surface against damage by dirt and handling and to restore the tonality lost when some darker pigments dry out into a higher key. Unfortunately, varnish tends to darken and yellow with time into the sometimes disastrously imitated “Old Masters’ mellow patina.” Once cherished, this amber-gravy film is now generally removed to reveal the colours in their original intensity. Glass began to replace varnish toward the end of the 19th century, when painters wished to retain the fresh, luminous finish of pigments applied directly to a pure white ground. The air-conditioning and temperature-control systems of 21st-century museums make both varnishing and glazing unnecessary, except for older and more fragile exhibits.

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history of Europe: Painting and sculpture

Renaissance cassoneRenaissance cassone, painted and gilded wood, Florence, 15th century; in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. (more)The frames surrounding early altarpieces, icons, and cassone panels (painted panels on the chest used for a bride’s household linen) were often structural parts of the support. With the introduction of portable easel pictures, heavy frames not only provided some protection against theft and damage but were considered an aesthetic enhancement to a painting, and frame making became a specialized craft. Gilded gesso moldings (consisting of plaster of paris and sizing that forms the surface for low relief) in extravagant swags of fruit and flowers certainly seem almost an extension of the restless, exuberant design of a Baroque or Rococo painting. A substantial frame also provided a proscenium (in a theatre, the area between the orchestra and the curtain) in which the picture was isolated from its immediate surroundings, thus adding to the window view illusion intended by the artist. Deep, ornate frames are often unsuitable for many modern paintings, where the artist’s intention is for forms to appear to advance toward the spectators rather than be viewed by them as if through a wall aperture. In Minimalist paintings no effects of spatial illusionism are intended, and, in order to emphasize the physical shape of the support itself and to stress its flatness, these abstract geometrical designs are displayed without frames or are merely edged with thin protective strips of wood or metal. Mediums By technical definition, mediums are the liquids added to paints to bind them and make them workable. They are discussed here, however, in the wider meaning of all the various paints, tools, supports, surfaces, and techniques employed by painters. The basis of all paints is variously coloured pigment, ground to a fine powder. The different expressive capacities and characteristic final surface texture of each medium are determined by the vehicle with which it is bound and thinned, the nature and surface preparation of the support, and the tools and technique with which it is handled. Hear artist Peter Blake discuss the history of blue paint from the 16th-century ultramarine used by Hans Holbein the Younger to the modern acrylics used by David HockneyLearn from artist Peter Blake about the history of blue paint from the costly lapis lazuli-based ultramarine used by Hans Holbein the Younger in the 16th century to the ubiquitous acrylic-based pigments used by David Hockney in the 20th century.(more)See all videos for this articlePigments are derived from various natural and artificial sources. The oldest and most permanent pigments are the blacks, prepared from bone and charcoal, and the clay earths, such as raw umber and raw sienna, which can be changed by heating into darker, warmer browns. In early periods of painting, readily available pigments were few. Certain intense hues were obtainable only from the rarer minerals, such as cinnabar (orange-red vermilion), lapis lazuli (violet-blue ultramarine), and malachite (green). These were expensive and therefore reserved for focal accents and important symbolic features in the design. The opening of trade routes and the manufacture of synthetic substitutes gradually extended the range of colours available to painters. Tempera Sandro Botticelli: The Birth of VenusThe Birth of Venus, tempera on canvas by Sandro Botticelli, c. 1485; in the Uffizi, Florence.(more)A tempera medium is dry pigment tempered with an emulsion and thinned with water. The ancient medium was in constant use in most world cultures, until in Europe it was gradually superseded by oil paints during the Renaissance. Tempera was the mural medium in the ancient dynasties of Egypt, Babylonia, Mycenean Greece, and China and was used to decorate the early Christian catacombs. It was employed on a variety of supports, from the stone stelae (or commemorative pillars), mummy cases, and papyrus rolls of ancient Egypt to the wood panels of Byzantine icons and altarpieces and the vellum leaves of medieval illuminated manuscripts. The word tempera originally came from the verb temper, “to bring to a desired consistency.” Dry pigments are made usable by “tempering” them with a binding and adhesive vehicle. Such painting was distinguished from fresco painting, the colours for which contained no binder. Eventually, after the rise of oil painting, the word gained its present meaning. Simone Martini: Christ Discovered in the TempleChrist Discovered in the Temple, egg tempera on panel with gold leaf by Simone Martini, 1342; in the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool. 49.5 × 35 cm.(more)The standard tempera vehicle is a natural emulsion, egg yolk, thinned with water. Variants of this vehicle have been developed to widen its use. Among the man-made emulsions are those prepared with whole egg and linseed oil, with gum, and with wax. Simone Martini: detail of The AnnunciationDetail of The Annunciation, tempera on wood by Simone Martini and Lippo Memmi, 1333; in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence.(more)The special ground for tempera painting is a rigid wood or wallboard panel coated with several thin layers of gesso, a white, smooth, fully absorbent preparation made of burnt gypsum (or chalk, plaster of Paris, or whiting) and hide (or parchment) glue. A few minutes after application, tempera paint is sufficiently resistant to water to allow overpainting with more colour. Thin, transparent layers of paint produce a clear, luminous effect, and the colour tones of successive brushstrokes blend optically. Modern tempera paintings are sometimes varnished or overpainted with thin, transparent oil glazes to produce full, deep-toned results, or they are left unglazed for blond, or light, effects. The great tradition of tempera painting was developed in Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries by Duccio di Buoninsegna and Giotto and continued in the work of Giovanni Bellini, Piero della Francesca, Carlo Crivelli, Sandro Botticelli, and Vittore Carpaccio. The 20th century saw a revival of tempera by American artists Ben Shahn, Andrew Wyeth, and Jacob Lawrence and by the British painter Lucian Freud. Tempera was largely replaced mid-century by acrylic paints.